Aarvold, J. E., C. Bailey, et al. (2004). "A "give it a go" breast-feeding culture and early cessation among low-income mothers." Midwifery 20(3): 240-250.
	Objective: to examine cultural expectations and experiences of breast feeding amongst first time mothers from low-income areas, in order to improve understanding of why many cease breast feeding in the early days of their babies' lives. Design: qualitative interviews were carried out with 16 women, who expressed an intention to breast feed, at 37 weeks in their pregnancy and again at 3-9 weeks postnatally. Setting: women were interviewed in their own homes in low-income areas of North Tyneside, north-east England. Findings: decisions about breast-feeding cessation were usually made within the first few days as women negotiated the pathways of informal cultures of feeding babies and the availability and quality of formal care. A "give it a go" breast-feeding culture is identified, where women who intended to breast feed had a strong expectation of difficulties and even failure. Expertise and confidence with bottle feeding were more widespread among family and friends. The many influences on the mothers' decision-making were interconnected and contingent upon each other: if one aspect of breast feeding "goes wrong", other reasons were often brought into play and the underlying pessimism that was felt antenatally was borne out. Conclusions: positive experiences of formal support could make a crucial difference in the early days of breast feeding. However non-breast-feeding cultures permeated and found expression in negative discourses. Support needs to take account of the cultural contexts in which mothers make decisions and the fact that breast feeding is affected by a multitude of factors simultaneously. Access to advice at the right time is a key issue for some low-income women. (Original abstract)

Abraham, S., W. King, et al. (1994). "Attitudes to Body-Weight, Weight-Gain and Eating Behavior in Pregnancy."  15(4): 189-195.
	The eating behavior and attitudes to body weight of 100 healthy women were studied 3 days after the birth of their first child. During pregnancy women 'watch their weight' and use a range of methods of weight control which include cigarette smoking and inducing vomiting. During pregnancy 41 women reported weight control problems and 20 women considered their weight and eating problems to be greater than at any previous time. Picking was the most common Mnu,anted behavior. Binge eating was experienced by 44 women, nine of whom reported it to be a 'severe' problem. Although women were ambivalent about being weighed at each antenatal visit, 81 recommended weighing once each month. The women held differing opinions on the effects of breastfeeding on body weight and on the need for nutritional supplements during pregnancy. Women reporting 'disordered eating' were move likely to have antenatal complications and give birth to low birthweight babies. The results suggest goon obstetric care should include a history of the woman's eating behavior and body weight.

Acharya, P. K. (2003). "Maternal factors and nutritional status of preschool children."  83(1-2): 109-119.
	The linkage of maternal factors, such as mother's education, employment, nutritional status, nutritional knowledge and adherence to food taboos and beliefs related to child's nutrition, with the nutritional status of preschool children (11 to 5 years old) is evaluated. The study, which comprised 215 preschool slum children of Bhubaneswar city, was undertaken following the techniques of nutritional anthropometry and interview. The results indicate that nutritional status of the children deteriorates with mothers' low nutritional status, poor nutritional knowledge, adherence to food taboos and beliefs, and low educational status. That apart, mother's employment at home keeps the children in better nutritional health than her unemployment or employment away from home. Hence it is suggested that any programme to improve the nutritional status of the preschool slum children should have strategies to improve the nutritional status, educational status, and nutritional knowledge of the mothers besides providing them scope for employment at home.

Adams, A. K., R. A. Quinn, et al. (2005). "Low recognition of childhood overweight and disease risk among Native-American caregivers." Obesity Research 13(1): 146-152.
	Objectives: Pediatric obesity is a significant and increasing problem in Native-American communities. The aim of this study was to determine whether parents and other caregivers from three Wisconsin tribes recognized overweight children. We also assessed caregiver attributes associated with levels of concern for risk of future overweight and chronic disease. Research Methods and Procedures: Data were obtained from child health screenings and caregiver surveys. Participants included 366 kindergarten-through-second grade child-caregiver dyads. Children's BMI percentiles were calculated and compared with caregiver responses. We assessed the relationships between predictors of caregiver concern for health risk factors and recognition of overweight. Results: Twenty-six percent of children were overweight (>= 95th percentile), and 19% were at risk for being overweight (>= 85th to < 95th percentile) using Centers for Disease Control standards. Caregivers recognized only 15.1% of overweight children. Factors predictive of child overweight recognition included a child BMI > 99th percentile and grandmother as caregiver. Overall, caregivers were more concerned about diabetes and cardiovascular disease than obesity. Parents with diabetes and heart disease were more concerned than others about risk for these diseases; however, only diabetic parents made a connection between child weight status and future risk of obesity-related disease. Child sex, child age, and parental education level were not significant predictors for caregiver recognition of an overweight child. Discussion: Most caregivers did not recognize overweight children or associate excess weight with increased risk of disease. When designing community interventions, it is crucial to incorporate caregivers' attitudes and beliefs regarding childhood overweight and risk of future disease.

Adams, R. (2002). Social Policy for Social Work. London, Palgrave.
	
Adamson, A., Curtis, P., Loughridge, J., Rugg-Gunn, A., Spendiff, A. &   and J. Mathers (2000). "A family-based intervention to increase consumption of starchy foods." Nutrition & Food Science 30( 1): 19 - 23.
	
Adburgham, A. (1972). Women in print : writing women and women's magazines from the Restoration to the accession of Victoria. London, Allen and Unwin.
	
Addis, M. and G. Cohane (2005). "Social scientific paradigms of masculinity and their implications for research and practice in men's mental health." JOURNAL OF CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY 61(6): 633-647.
	Clinical researchers and practitioners are increasingly aware of the need for quality theory, research, and intervention in men's mental health. Successful work in this area requires an understanding of the multitude of ways that gender, and more specifically masculinities, can be conceptualized beyond a sole focus on sex differences between men and women. Drawing from a range of social sciences in addition to psychology, the authors consider several theoretical, research, and clinical directions that can follow from social learning, psychodynamic, social constructionist, and feminist paradigms. It is concluded that thinking deeply and critically within different paradigms of masculinity is critical for progress in both research and practice.

Adler, P. S. a. K., S. W. . (2001). "'Social capital: Prospects for a New Concept',." Academy of Management Review.
	
Adriansen, I. (1977). "Albuerne-Af-Bordet Og Lad-Vaere-at-Snakke-Med-Mad-I-Munden!" Arv og Eje: 133-162.
	Discusses table manners and mealtimes in Denmark since 1920 through the rules for table manners and the suggestions for dinner-services found in books on etiquette, cookery books, architectural journals and food magazines. Compares material from trend-setting circles with descriptions of how people actually ate in a number of different environments throughout Denmark. After discussing the variety of customs connected with a meal such as grace, seating, conversation, fastidiousness, toasts, and thanking the host for the meal, the author describes mealtimes and table manners at work, in the army, in kindergartens and gourmet temples. Considers in conclusion the increasing homogeneity of mealtimes and table manners among all classes as the result of a better standard of living and greater cultural uniformity. The differences today are not particularly geographical and only socially determined to a limited extent.

Agras, S. W., L. D. Hammer, et al. (2004). "Risk factors for childhood overweight: a prospective study from birth to 9.5 years." The Journal of Pediatrics 145: 20-25.
	
Ahlqvist, M. and E. Wirfalt (2000). "Beliefs concerning dietary practices during pregnancy and lactation - A qualitative study among Iranian women residing in Sweden."  14(2): 105-111.
	Growing multiculturalism in Sweden challenges health professionals to provide safe and culturally meaningful care. Differences between the health-disease explanatory models of lay persons and health professionals may lead to communication problems, which ultimately could affect health outcomes. The aim of this study was to explore cultural beliefs about food and health during pregnancy and lactation. Increased knowledge and understanding among health professionals on such issues should facilitate culturally congruent nutrition counselling. Individual interviews were performed among first-generation Iranian female immigrants in the county of Stockholm. The interviews followed a set of predefined key questions. Content analysis of interview transcripts followed a grounded theory approach. Five major categories emerged, which referred to 'hot-cold' values, foetal attributes, satisfaction of cravings, survival of the mother, and quantity and quality of breast milk. 'Mother's diet provides strength that sustains life' emerged as the most relevant core concept. This study demonstrated maternal strength to be important for a successful pregnancy outcome and lactation. Displacement of food items caused by migration in combination with a strong adherence to Iranian health beliefs could potentially cause food choices with detrimental health effects.

Ahluwalia, I. B., B. Morrow, et al. (2003). "Who is breast-feeding? Recent trends from the pregnancy risk assessment and monitoring system." Journal of Pediatrics 142(5): 486-491.
	
Ahye, B. A., C. M. Devine, et al. (2006). "Values expressed through intergenerational family food and nutrition management systems among African American women."  29(1): 5-16.
	This grounded theory investigation aimed to understand intergenerational family roles and the food management strategies of African American women from a social-ecological perspective. Thirty women from 10 low/moderate-income 3-generation urban families participated in interviews covering roles, health, nutrition, and food management strategies. Four dynamic family systems for managing food and nutrition emerged from qualitative data analysis. Participants expressed values of responsibility, social connections, caretaking, reward, and equal opportunity, and fulfilling responsibilities for family care, connections, and finances. These values and systems provide a basis for culturally appropriate, interpersonal-level nutrition interventions among African American women that build on family structures, needs, and resources.

Alaimo, K., C. M. Olson, et al. "Food insufficiency, family income, and health in US preschool and school-aged children." American Journal of Public Health 91(5): 781-786.
	OBJECTIVES: This study investigated associations between family income, food insufficiency, and health among US preschool and school-aged children. METHODS: Data from the third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey were analyzed. Children were classified as food insufficient if the family respondent reported that the family sometimes or often did not get enough food to eat. Regression analyses were conducted with health measures as the outcome variables. Prevalence rates of health variables were compared by family income category, with control for age and gender. Odds ratios for food insufficiency were calculated with control for family income and other potential confounding factors. RESULTS: Low-income children had a higher prevalence of poor/fair health status and iron deficiency than high-income children. After confounding factors, including poverty status, had been controlled, food-insufficient children were significantly more likely to have poorer health status and to experience more frequent stomachaches and headaches than food-sufficient children; preschool food-insufficient children had more frequent colds. CONCLUSIONS: Food insufficiency and low family income are health concerns for US preschool and school-aged children.

Alder, E. M., F. L. R. Williams, et al. (2004). "What influences the timing of the introduction of solid food to infants'?"  92(3): 527-531.
	The aim of the present study was to assess the factors which may influence the timing of the introduction of solid food to infants. The design was a prospective cohort study by interview and postal questionnaire. Primiparous women (n 541) aged between 16 and 40 years were approached in the Forth Park Maternity Hospital, Fife, Scotland. Of these, 526 women agreed to participate and seventy-eight were used as subjects in the pilot study. At 12 weeks we interviewed 338 women of the study sample. The postal questionnaire was returned by 286 of 448 volunteers. At 12 weeks 133 of 338 mothers said that they had introduced solids. Those that said that they had introduced solids early (<12 weeks) were compared with those who had introduced solids late (>12 weeks) by bivariate and multiple regression analysis. Psychosocial factors influencing the decision were measured with the main outcome measure being the time of introduction of solid food. The early introduction of solids was found to be associated with: the opinions of the infant's maternal grandmother: living in a deprived area; personal disagreement with the advice to wait until the baby was 4 months; lack of encouragement from friends to wait until the baby was 4 months; being in receipt of free samples of manufactured food. Answers to open-ended questions indicated that the early introduction appeared to be influenced by the mothers' perceptions of the baby's needs. Some of the factors influencing a woman's decision to introduce solids are amenable to change, and these could be targeted ill educational interventions.

Alderson, T. S. J. and J. Ogden (1999). "What do mothers feed their children and why?" Health Education Research 14(6): 717-727.
	
Alexander, J., T. Anderson, et al. (2003). "An evaluation of a support group for breast-feeding women in Salisbury, UK." Midwifery 19(3): 215-220.
	
Allbrooke, J.
	
Allen, R. and J. Winship (1983). The Changing experience of women. Milton Keynes, The Open University Press.
	
Amey, M. D. (2004). "Masculinity and Men's Lifestyle Magazines." JOURNAL OF GENDER STUDIES 13(3): 277-280.
	
Amir, L. H., J. P. James, et al. (2005). "Review of tongue-tie release at a tertiary maternity hospital."  41(5-6): 243-245.
	Objective: To review the first 12 months of assessment and release of lingual frenulum (frenotomy) at a breast-feeding clinic in a tertiary maternity hospital (August 2002 to end of July 2003) and to report on the breast-feeding outcomes and parental satisfaction. Methods: A structured telephone interview was conducted with the mother at least 3 months after the assessment. Data were collected about the presenting problem and the effect of release of the tongue-tie (if performed). Parents were also asked about their satisfaction with the procedure and of problems following the release. Results: Sixty-six babies were assessed in 12 months. If infants were assessed as: (i) having impaired lingual function (using the Hazelbaker assessment tool for lingual frenulum function); (ii) the frenulum visualized to be a thin membrane; and (iii) the parent(s) gave informed consent, the frenulum was released. Initial and follow-up data are available on 46 infants. Infants had a mean age of 18 days (range 3-98), 63% were male infants and most had difficulties with attachment to the breast. Frenotomy was performed on 35 infants and breast-feeding improved in 83%. Parents reported high levels of satisfaction with the frenotomy procedure and no complications were reported. Conclusion: Frenotomy is a safe and easy procedure. Infants with a significant tongue-tie that is interfering with breast-feeding have shown an improvement with breast-feeding following frenotomy.

Anderson, D., D. Anderson, et al. (1997). The British woman today : a qualitative survey of images in women's magazines. [Great Britain], Social Affairs Unit.
	
Anderson, E. S., A. Jackson, et al. (2002). "Child care decisions: parental choice or chance?" Child Care Health and Development 28(5): 391-401.
	
Andreasen, K. R., Andersen, M.L, & Schantz, A.L. (2004). "Obesity and pregnancy." Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 83: 1022-1029.
	Background: ...Complications associated with obesity in pregnancy are gestational diabetes mellitus, hypertensive disorders, and thromboembolic complications. Complications associated with obesity in labor are augmentation, early amniotomy, cephalopelvic disproportion, cesarian section, and perioperative morbidity. Complications associated with obesity in small children are macrosomia, shoulder dystocia, small for gestational age, late fetal death, and congenital malformations, especially neural tube defects.
Objectives: The aim was to review the potential complications associated with obesity and pregnancy.
Results: Obesity is associated with a higher risk of all reviewed complications except small for gestational age.

Anon (2002). "Formula feeding a safe alternative to breastfeeding." Reproductive Health Matters 10(19): 211-211.
	
Antoniades, M. and V. Tarasuk "A survey of food problems experienced by Toronto street youth."
	A brief survey was undertaken to assess the nature and severity of food scarcity experienced by a sample of 88 street youth in downtown Toronto, and to identify markers of vulnerability to food scarcity. Almost half of the youth reported experiencing involuntary hunger or food deprivation during the previous 30 days. Youth who were literally homeless (i.e., on the street or squatting in abandoned buildings) and those relying primarily on street-based activities for income appeared particularly vulnerable to food deprivation. Although limited in scope, the findings raise questions about the nutritional well-being of street youth and highlight the need for more effective interventions to address problems of poverty, hunger, and homelessness among Canadian youth.

Antoniades, M. and V. Tarasuk. "A survey of food problems experienced by Toronto street youth."
	A brief survey was undertaken to assess the nature and severity of food scarcity experienced by a sample of 88 street youth in downtown Toronto, and to identify markers of vulnerability to food scarcity. Almost half of the youth reported experiencing involuntary hunger or food deprivation during the previous 30 days. Youth who were literally homeless (i.e., on the street or squatting in abandoned buildings) and those relying primarily on street-based activities for income appeared particularly vulnerable to food deprivation. Although limited in scope, the findings raise questions about the nutritional well-being of street youth and highlight the need for more effective interventions to address problems of poverty, hunger, and homelessness among Canadian youth.

Arapoglou, V. P. (2004). "The Governance of Homelessness in Greece: Discourse and Power in the Study of Philanthropic Networks."
	This article argues that the study of homelessness in the European South can be advanced by employing concepts & methods of critical discourse analysis, which integrate different conceptualizations of homelessness into wider changes in the direction of the "pluralistic" & "decentralized" treatment of poverty & social exclusion. To illustrate the dialectical relationship between power, discourse, & practice in the treatment of homelessness in Greece the analysis of documents & interviews amongst key stakeholders is contrasted with information from my participation in local projects. Findings suggest that powerful actors resort to a mix of philanthropic & managerial discourses to promote their own charitable work & to select deserving from undeserving clients. 2 Tables, 63 References. [Reprinted by permission of Sage Publications Ltd., copyright 2004.].

Arendell, T. (2000). "Caregiving and investigating motherhood: The decade's scholarship'." Journal of Marriage and Family, 62:(1192-1207).
	
Arnott, M. L., Ed. (1975). Gastronomy : the anthropology of food and food habits. World anthropology. Chicago, Mouton.
	
Aronson, A. (2002). Taking liberties : early American women's magazines and their readers. Westport, Conn., Praeger.
	
Askhim, O. (2003). "Empowerment as guidance for professional social work: an act of balancing on a slack rope." European Journal of Social Work 6(3): 229-240.
	
Association, A. P. Psychology of men and masculinity. Washington, DC, American Psychological Association.
	
Atkins, R. C. (2002). Dr Atkins' New Diet Revolution. New York, HarperCollins.
	
Attwood, L. (1999). Creating the new Soviet woman : women's magazines as engineers of female identity, 1922-53. Basingstoke, Macmillan in association with Centre for Russian and East European Studies, University of Birmingham.
	
Audi, C. A. F., A. M. S. Correa, et al. (2005). "Factors associated with infant feeding practices after hospital discharge." Revista De Saude Publica 39(3): 406-412.
	
Auerbach, C., A. Beckerman, et al. (1990). "Can Homelessness Be Prevented? An Evaluation of a Homelessness Prevention Program."
	Inadequacies in US social policies that contribute to homelesness are outlined, including lack of: (1) coherent & specific public housing policy, (2) an income maintenance policy, (3) coherent zoning policy covering low cost housing, (4) public housing building policy, & (5) mental health policy providing supported housing & community mental services for deinstitutionalized patients. The effectiveness of a Housing Service Demonstration Project in the Northern Manhattan section of New York City is evaluated in a six-month pilot study. The project's goal was to reduce the numbers of evictions of public assistance recipients through a combination of social & legal services. Preliminary results indicate that the project has had strongly positive outcomes including helping seven families avoid eviction entirely; illustrative case examples are provided. It is concluded that programs reducing housing evictions would reduce homelessness, & are cost effective as well. 18 References. C. Grindle.

Auerbach, J. A. (1997). "What They Read: Mid-Nineteenth Century English Women's Magazines and the Emergence of a Consumer Culture." Victorian Periodicals Review 30(2): 121-140.
	Traces shifts in the content of three English women's periodicals published between 1832 and 1851 - The Ladies' Cabinet, The New Monthly Belle Assemblee, and The Ladies Companion - that demonstrate that the most successful women's magazines of those years responded to a burgeoning feminized bourgeois consumer culture by rejecting romantic literature and presenting practical information about overseeing a middle-class household.

Avdi, E., Griffin, C & Brough, S. (2000). " Parents' constructions of professional knowledge, expertise and authority during assessment and diagnosis of their child for an autistic spectrum disorder',." British Journal of Medical Psychology, (73),(3:): 327-338.
	
Averyt, J. M. (2003). "Determinants of Adverse Departures from Supported Housing." Dissertation Abstracts International, A: The Humanities and Social Sciences 64(6): 2255-A.
	Supported housing consists of residential market housing with flexible supports. The eligibility criteria for the supported housing in this study included a diagnosis of a serious mental illness, substance abuse, having HIV positive status, being homeless, or being at risk for being homeless. Approximately half of the exits or departures from this study were adverse, i.e.--due to eviction or abandonment of an apartment. Prior research suggested that substance abuse is a primary cause of adverse departures. In this study a history of substance abuse was expected to increase the likelihood of adverse departures, while case management and substance abuse treatment were expected to decrease the likelihood of adverse departures. This study included survey data and administrative data gathered as part of a three-year on-going evaluation of The Connecticut Supportive Housing Demonstration Program, a partnership between the Corporation for Supportive Housing and the State of Connecticut. The survey data came from survey instruments administered to tenants by caseworkers upon entry into the evaluation program. In addition, administrative data were provided by the Connecticut Department of Social Services, Medicaid Unit, and the Connecticut Department of Mental Health and Addiction Services (DMHAS). The data were analyzed to examine the extent to which a history of substance abuse, case management, and substance abuse treatment explained adverse departures from supported housing. The findings from this study indicated that being African-American, having a history of prior homelessness and reporting doing very well at being independent/self reliant prior to entry to the program increased the likelihood of an adverse departure. Being over 40 decreased the likelihood of such a departure.

Avishai, O. "The Cultural Contradictions of Motherhood? The Case of Breast Feeding: Extolling Science, Reproducing Capitalism."
	Drawing on the scholarship on motherhood that views mothering as a cultural opposition to the ideology of rationalized market societies, & focusing on class-privileged women, this paper suggests that breast-feeding practices may be embedded in, be the product of, & contribute to the reproduction of market ideology & to the predominance of science. Class-privileged women view breast-feeding as a rational response to scientific data; they emphasize substance over process, & approach breast-feeding as a project. Professionalization & consumerism are central to the way these women experience breast-feeding. More generally, the case of breast-feeding demonstrates that seemingly emancipatory mothering practices do not necessarily critique the individual at the heart of market ideology or the capitalist mode of thinking, & women of a certain class participate in & contribute to the reproduction of dominant contemporary regimes. Women's narratives about breast-feeding also reveal a paradox of women's lives as they attempt to reconcile a capitalist image of a successful & rational worker & consumer with a maternalist image of caregiver & nurturer.

Backett-Milburn, K. (2004). "Parenting in poor environments: Stress, support and coping." Journal of Marriage and the Family 66(5): 1346-1347.
	
Backett-Milburn, K., S. Cunningham-Burley, et al. (2003). "Contrasting lives, contrasting views? understandings of health inequalities from children in differing social circumstances." Social Science & Medicine 57(4): 613-623.
	Children's differing socio-economic, cultural and familial circumstances and experiences are part of the pathways implicated in health and illness in adulthood. However, in the existing, mainly survey based, work children's own voices tend to be absent and adult-defined data about health and illness accumulated. Little is known about the social and cultural processes, in children's very different childhoods, which underpin and ultimately constitute these epidemiological findings. This paper reports findings from a qualitative study examining the socio-economic and cultural contexts of children's lifestyles and the production of inequalities in health, carried out in a large Scottish city. Two rounds of semi-structured interviews, using a range of child-friendly techniques (photographs, drawings, vignettes), were carried out with 35 girls and boys aged 9-12 years living in two contrasting but contiguous areas, one relatively advantaged and one relatively disadvantaged. Thirty of their parents were also interviewed and community profiling and observational work undertaken. Children and parents described often starkly contrasting lives and opportunities. regularly involving material differences. However, children appeared to locate inequalities as much in relationships and social life as in material concerns; in this their direct experiences of relationships and unfairness were central to their making sense of inequality and its impact on health. Although children from both areas highlighted several different inequalities, including those related to material resources, they also spoke of the importance of control over their life world; of care and love particularly from parents; of friendship and acceptance by their peer group. Many children challenged straightforward causal explanations for future ill-health, privileging some explanations, such as psychological or lifestyle factors. The accounts of children from both areas displayed considerable resilience to and downplaying of the effects of both relationship and material inequalities; also showing how familial and personal challenges, such as bullying, divorce, learning difficulties, cut across structurally based differences. (C) 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Backett-Milburn, K. and J. Harden (2004). "How children and their families construct and negotiate risk, safety and danger." Childhood-a Global Journal of Child Research 11(4): 429-447.
	This article presents an analysis of the family context and everyday negotiations around risk, safety and danger between children and parents in four families drawn from a larger qualitative study. The challenges of analysing accounts from several family members are highlighted. Case study families are described; and fragments of their interwoven individual and shared biographies, on which respondents regularly drew to legitimate risk-related beliefs and practices, are outlined. The dynamic, fluid and contingent nature of risk construction and reconstruction in everyday family life is discussed and three main themes explored: establishing `the bottom line'; assumptions, collusions and contradictions around age, siblinghood and time; and contextualizing risk in the conduct of others. The authors conclude that, just as with childhood itself, it is important also to contextualize `risk' within socioeconomic, cultural and institutional frameworks; and that, for most children, their families both constitute one such context and mediate wider social structures.

Badinter, E. (1995). XY : on masculine identity. New York, Columbia University Press,.
	
Bahn, A. K. (1979). "Changes and Continuities in the Transitional Status of Bride into Wife: A Content Analysis of Bridal Magazines, 1967-1977, The Decade of the Women's Movement." DAI 40(5): 2332-A.
	
Bailey, C. and R. Pain (2001). "Geographies of infant feeding and access to primary health-care." Health and Social Care in the Community 9(5): 309-317.
	
Bailey, C., R. H. Pain, et al. (2004). "A 'give it a go' breast-feeding culture and early cessation among low-income mothers." Midwifery 20(3): 240-250.
	
Baker Collins, S. "An Understanding of Poverty from Those Who Are Poor."
	Participatory research in the study of poverty invites those living in difficult circumstances to participate in an analysis of their own livelihood situation. A participatory poverty assessment was facilitated with a small group of women who are members of a food co-operative in Niagara Falls, Canada & who live in poverty. The women explored together issues of well-being, the stress of living in poverty, the role of the social assistance system in shaping their lives & community attitudes. Important themes which emerged included an emphasis on social relationships, the impact of the pervasive scrutiny of the social assistance bureaucracy, the importance of community good will & the possibilities for community action. This article discusses the contribution of local knowledge to an understanding of poverty as well as the limitations of participation in changing social policy. 5 Figures, 38 References. [Reprinted by permission of Sage Publications Ltd., copyright 2005.].

Baker, S., P. Choi, et al. (2005). "Supermum, superwife, supereverything: performing femininity in the transition to motherhood."
	The aim of this qualitative study was to comprehend how mothers understood and accounted for their experiences in relation to the ideology of motherhood which has been socially constructed as a critical aspect of femininity. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 24 primiparous and multiparous women, and transcripts analysed using open and axial coding with triangulation. Using a material-discursive approach to interpret the data, two higher order themes are presented: 'the realization of new motherhood' and 'coping with new motherhood'. These themes demonstrate how unprepared for motherhood the women were and how their expectations were based on various myths of motherhood. This led to feelings of inadequacy as they struggled with the myth versus reality discrepancy. However, they could not be seen to be inadequate and therefore employed greater efforts to portray themselves as supermum, superwife, supereverything and hide the opposite. These findings are interpreted within the context of the social construction of femininity and how it is performed within motherhood. Implications for antenatal and postpartum care are discussed. (Original abstract)

Balfe, M. (2006). "Diets, Diabetes and Discipline: The Narratives of Practice of University Students with Type 1 Diabetes."
	
Ball, H. L., E. Hooker, et al. (1999). "Where will the baby sleep? Attitudes and practices of new and experienced parents regarding cosleeping with their newborn infants."  101(1): 143-151.
	An evolutionary perspective on human infant sleep physiology suggests that parent-infant cosleeping, practiced under safe conditions, might be beneficial to both mothers and infants. However, cosleeping is not part of mainstream parenting ideology in the United States or the United Kingdom, and little evidence is available to indicate whether, and under what circumstances, parents sleep with their newborn infants. We present data from an anthropological investigation into the practices and attitudes of new and experienced parents of newborn infants regarding parent-infant sleeping arrangements in a community in the northeast of England. Despite not having contemplated cosleeping prior to the birth, new parents in our sample found it to be a convenient nighttime caregiving strategy, and one which was practiced regularly. Infants slept with both their parents, some being habitual all-night cosleepers, but commonly beginning the night in a crib and sleeping with their parents for several hours following the early morning feed.

Ballaster, R. B., Margaret ;  Frazer, Elizabeth; Hebron, Sandra Women's Worlds: Ideology, Femininity and Women's Magazines (Women in Society S.)  
	
Banner, L. W. (1973). "Why Women Have Not Been Great Chefs." South Atlantic Quarterly 72(2): 198-212.
	Despite the achievements of women in writing cookbooks, creating new dishes, and serving as cooks in homes and restaurants when men were not available, a status-conscious public has preferred to be served by men. Male chefs have preferred to lessen competition and "shore up" their own status by denying women access to the prestigious positions in the world of cooking. In general women have not been great chefs because the role has not been available to them.

Bansal, M., R. Shaw, et al. (2003). "Is breast best? Perceptions of infant feeding." Community Practitioner 76(8): 299-303.
	Explored the reasons why young women from low income areas are among those least likely to breastfeed. Focus groups were conducted with 15 health professionals and 11 young, first-time mothers were interviewed. Discusses the findings and makes recommendations which include educating health professionals about sub-cultures in their communities and reversing the misconception that breast milk is insufficient for a baby's healthy development. (Original abstract - amended)

Barling, D., Lang, T. & Caraher, M (2002). "Joined-up food policy? The trials of Baum, F. (1999) Social Capital: Is it Good for your Health? Issues for a Public Health Agenda',." Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 53:: 195-196.
	
Barnard, A. (1971). The professional approach : writing & selling women's magazine fiction. St Columb (Trevarren, St Columb, Cornwall), United Writers Publications.
	
Barnett, C., P. Cafaro, et al. (2005). Philosophy and Ethical Consumption. The Ethical Consumer. R. Harrison, T. Newholm and D. Shaw. London, Sage: 11-24.
	
Barratt, M., K. Negayama, et al. (2004). "Characteristics of breast feeding mothers in the US, Japan and France." International Journal of Psychology 39(5-6): 353-353.
	
Bartfeld, J. (2003). "Single mothers, emergency food assistance, and food stamps in the welfare reform era."  37(2): 283-304.
	This article documents the characteristics, circumstances, and factors linked to concurrent use of food stamps among single-mother food pantry clients in Wisconsin in 1999. Most of these mothers use food pantries as an alternative, rather than a supplement, to food stamps, despite appearing to meet food stamp income criteria. Concurrent food stamp use is more common among mothers with weaker employment ties, more recent welfare involvement, and residence in a county that experienced smaller food stamp caseload declines in the welfare reform years.

Barth, R. P., T. M. Crea, et al. (2005). "Beyond Attachment Theory and Therapy: Towards Sensitive and Evidence-Based Interventions with Foster and Adoptive Families in Distress."
	Elements of attachment theory have been embraced by practitioners endeavouring to assist foster & adopted children & their parents. Attachment theory articulates the potential risks of experiencing multiple caregivers; emphasizes the importance of close social relationships to development; & recognizes that substitute parents may not always have close relationships with children who have experienced adversities before joining them. Attachment theory offers concerned parents what they believe to be a scientific explanation about their lack of the close, satisfying parent - child relationship they desire. Yet the scientific base of attachment theory is limited both in terms of its ability to predict future behaviours, & especially with regard to its use as the underpinning theory for therapeutic intervention with children experiencing conduct problems. There is a critical need to review the role of attachment theory in child & family services & to consider its place among other explanations for children's disturbing behaviour. An important step towards pursuing alternative approaches is for researchers & practitioners to understand the reasons the attachment paradigm appeals to so many adoptive & foster parents, given the apparent widespread prevalence of attachment-based interventions. Such understanding might assist in the development of adoption-sensitive uses of appropriate evidence-based treatment approaches. 90 References. Adapted from the source document.

Bartlett, A. (2002). "Breastfeeding as Headwork: Corporeal Feminism and Meanings for Breastfeeding." Women's Studies International Forum 25(3): 373-382.
	
Barton, R. (2000). "The effect of nutrition intervention, using the Balance of Good Health Model, on hte composition of packed lunches of 10-11 year old schoolchildren." Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics 13(5): 363-371.
	
Baughcum, A. E., K. A. Burklow, et al. (1998). "Maternal feeding practices and childhood obesity: a focus group study of low-income mothers." Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 152(10): 1010-4.
	
Baughcum, A. E., L. A. Chamberlin, et al. (2000). "Maternal perceptions of overweight preschool children." Pediatrics 106(6): 1380-6.
	Context. Childhood obesity is a major public health problem, and prevention efforts should begin early in life and involve parents., Objective. To determine what factors are associated with mothers' failure to perceive when their preschool children are overweight., Design. Cross-sectional survey., Settings. Offices of private pediatricians and clinics of the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC)., Participants. Six hundred twenty-two mothers with children 23 to 60 months of age., Main Outcome Measures. Maternal demographic variables, maternal self-reported height and weight, and children's measured height and weight. Mothers were asked whether they considered themselves or their children overweight., Results. Forty-five percent of mothers had low education (high school degree or less) and 55% had high education (some college or more). Obesity (body mass index: >/= 30 kg/m2) was more common in the low education group of mothers (30% vs 17%), and their children tended to be more overweight (weight-for-height percentile: >/= 90th; 19% vs 14%). Ninety-five percent of obese mothers believed that they were overweight, with no difference between education groups. However, 79% of mothers failed to perceive their overweight child as overweight. Among the 99 mothers with overweight children, low maternal education was associated with a failure to perceive their children as overweight after adjusting for low family income </= 185% of poverty), maternal obesity, age, and smoking plus the child's age, race, and gender (adjusted odds ratio: 6.2; 95% confidence interval: 1.7-22.5)., Conclusions. Obesity was more common in mothers with less education as well as in their children. Nearly all of the obese mothers regarded themselves as overweight. However, the majority of mothers did not view their overweight children as overweight, and this misperception was more common in mothers with less education. Childhood obesity prevention efforts are unlikely to be successful without a better understanding of how mothers perceive the problem of overweight in their preschool children.

Baughcum, A. E., S. B. Johnson, et al. (2005). "Maternal efforts to prevent type 1 diabetes in at-risk children."  28(4): 916-921.
	OBJECTIVE - The aim of this study was to assess maternal diabetes prevention efforts aimed at children identified as at risk through newborn genetic screening. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS - A total of 192 mothers of children identified as at risk for type 1 diabetes through newborn genetic screening were administered a structured interview 3.6 +/- 0.8 years after risk notification. The interview assessed possible diabetes prevention behaviors across six domains: health surveillance, diet, physical activity, illness prevention, medications, and stress reduction. A mother's cognitive (diabetes risk perception and perceived control), affective (anxiety), and coping responses to the child's at-risk status were assessed. RESULTS - A total of 67% of mothers reported one or more diabetes prevention behaviors. Monitoring behaviors (e.g., watching for signs of diabetes and checking blood glucose) were the most common, reported in 59%, followed by modifications in the child's diet in 34% and physical activity in 14%. Potentially harmful prevention behaviors (e.g., limiting contact with other children, delaying immunizations, and giving medications including insulin) were rare. Mothers who engaged in diabetes prevention behaviors reported higher diabetes risk perception, greater anxiety, and more use of certain coping styles. Infants of these mothers were more likely to have a first-degree relative with diabetes. CONCLUSIONS - in the absence of known methods of preventing type 1 diabetes, most mothers of at-risk children report diabetes prevention behaviors. Such behaviors must be more carefully assessed to ensure accurate interpretation of data obtained from natural history studies and prevention trials.

Baum, F. a. Z., A. (2003). "A glossary of social capital,." Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health(57:): 320-323.
	
Bayley, T. M., L. Dye, et al. (2002). "Food cravings and aversions during pregnancy: relationships with nausea and vomiting."  38(1): 45-51.
	Food cravings and food aversions are common during pregnancy, A mechanism that may explain these changes in food preference is taste aversion learning. Accordingly, this study examined the temporal association between the first occurrences of nausea. vomiting, food cravings and food aversions during pregnancy. Ninety-nine women completed a questionnaire that asked about the occurrence, timing of first onset, duration, strength and targets of these symptoms. Nausea and vomiting were reported by 80% and 56% of the women, food cravings and aversions by 61% and 54% respectively. Although more women experienced both food cravings and aversions than either symptom alone, cravings an aversions were statistically unrelated. There was a significant positive correlation between week of onset of nausea and of aversions. In 60% of women reporting both nausea and food aversions. the first occurrence of each happened in the same week of pregnancy. No such association was found for cravings. These retrospective accounts provide good support for taste aversion learning as a mechanism for the development of some but not all food aversions during pregnancy. Prospective data are needed to confirm these temporal relationships and to assist understanding of the emergence of food cravings. (C) 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd.

BBC. (2006). "Obesity tests for four-year-olds." BBC News  Retrieved 22 May 2006, 2006, from http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/5003766.stm.
	
Beals, D. E. (1993). "Explanatory Talk in Low-Income Families Mealtime Conversations."  14(4): 489-513.
	The purpose of this article is to outline the types and frequency of explanatory talk that occur in naturalistic conversations of low-income families of preschoolers. Thirty-one families participated in the study, tape-recording family mealtimes when their children were 3, 4, and 5 years old. A total of 75 transcripts were collected and analyzed for the presence of nine categories of explanatory talk, including intentional, causal, evidential, definitional/descriptive, procedural, and consequential. Explanatory talk consisted of conversation concerning some connection between objects, events, concepts, and/or conclusions that one speaker is pointing out to another. The most frequent type of explanations fell into intentional categories, which accounted for more than half of all segments of explanatory talk.

Beardsworth, A. and T. Keil (1997). Sociology on the menu : an invitation to the study of food and society. London ; New York, Routledge.
	
Beck, U. (1997). "Democratisation of the Family,." Childhood 4(2): 151-68.
	
Becker, S., M. Fedtke, et al. (2004). "Evolution of body mass index before, during and one year after pregnancy."  64(7): 706-710.
	Purpose: Obesity is a problem that affects almost one third of all pregnant women. To establish a data base for further studies we looked at the evolution of weight and body mass index before, during and one year after pregnancy. Material and Methods: Out of 2220 women who gave birth at the Women's University Hospital Tubingen in 2001, 1000 were selected for further evaluation in accordance with our inclusion and exclusion criteria. Data regarding pregnancy and delivery were collected retrospectively. One year after delivery, the women were contacted by phone and interviewed regarding their weight development. Results: Our of 1000 women, 713 women were successfully contacted. Average age was 31.7 years. Average weight before pregnancy was 65.9 kg, average weight-gain during pregnancy was 13.2 kg. Average weight one year postpartum was 66.5 kg. Before pregnancy, 23.3% of all women were overweight or obese. One year after delivery, 27.0% fell into these two categories (p < 0.01). Only about one third of all pregnant women gained weight within the recommended limits. Conclusion: Almost one third of women are overweight or obese before and one year after pregnancy and delivery. Weight changes during and after pregnancy varied widely. Overweight status before pregnancy and - for normal-weight women - weight gain in excess of the recommended maximal 16 kg during pregnancy were important risk factors for weight retention one year after

Becquet, R., D. K. Ekouevi, et al. (2005). "Knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs of health care workers regarding alternatives to prolonged breast-feeding (ANRS 1201/1202, Ditrame Plus, Abidjan, Cote d'Ivoire)." Jaids-Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 40(1): 102-105.
	
Beetham, M. and K. Boardman (2001). Victorian women's magazines : an anthology. Manchester, Manchester University Press.
	
Begum, N. (2004). "Employment by occupation and industry:
An analysis of the distribution of employment and characteristics of people in the main industry and occupation groups." Labour Market Trends 112(6): 227-234.
	
Bell, D. and G. Valentine (1997). Consuming geographies: we are where we eat. London, Routledge.
	
Benn, M. (1998). Madonna and child: towards a new politics of motherhood. London, Jonathon Cape.
	
Benson, J. (1994). The Rise of Consumer Society in Britain, 1880-1980. Harlow, Essex, Longman.
	
Benton, D. (X2004). "Role of parents in the determination of the food preferences of children and the development of obesity." International Journal of Obesity & Related Metabolic Disorders: Journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity 28(7): 858-69.
	The role of parental behaviour in the development of food preferences is considered. Food preferences develop from genetically determined predispositions to like sweet and salty flavours and to dislike bitter and sour tastes. Particularly towards the second year of life, there is a tendency to avoid novel foods (neophobia). Food aversions can be learnt in one trial if consumption is followed by discomfort. There is a predisposition to learn to like foods with high-energy density. However, from birth genetic predispositions are modified by experience and in this context during the early years parents play a particularly important role. Parental style is a critical factor in the development of food preferences. Children are more likely to eat in emotionally positive atmospheres. Siblings, peers and parents can act as role models to encourage the tasting of novel foods. Repeated exposure to initially disliked foods can breakdown resistance. The offering of low-energy-dense foods allows the child to balance energy intake. Restricting access to particular foods increases rather than decreases preference. Forcing a child to eat a food will decrease the liking for that food. Traditionally, educational strategies have typically involved attempts to impart basic nutritional information. Given the limited ability of information to induce changes in behaviour, an alternative strategy would be to teach parents about child development in the hope that an understanding of the characteristic innate tendencies and developmental stages can be used to teach healthy food preferences. [References: 112]

Berendsen, M. a. O. A. v. (2002). "Het Gezinslaboratorium : De Betwiste Keuken En De Wording Van De Moderne Huisvrouw." Tijdschrift voor Sociale Geschiedenis 28(3): 301-322.
	Analyzes the development and background of the so-called modern efficient kitchen by focusing on two distinct phases during its genesis. In the first half of the 20th century housewives, architects, housing corporations, and governments negotiated the organization of household labor and the interior design of kitchens. Between 1900 and 1925, the debate concentrated on two aspects: the place and function of kitchens and the way household labor had to be organized. Around 1925, the kitchen-living room combination had lost ground in favor of the concept of the small, closed kitchen as a household workplace. Cooking and washing outside the home in collective or cooperative laundries and kitchens (as an alternative to individual arrangements) was no longer promoted by the parties involved. As a result, the rationalization and mechanization of household labor inside the home by housewives had become the dominant issue. The period between 1925 and 1940 saw architects and spokeswomen for housewives elaborating on the outcome of the previous phase. Based on different interpretations of household efficiency, architects and the Dutch Association of Housewives (NVvH) developed several small closed workplace-kitchen prototypes. In the second half of the 1930's, the Bruynzeel Company took the step to standardization and mass production of built-in kitchen elements, the famous Bruynzeel kitchen. By focusing on actors who mediated between the production and use of kitchens, the authors argue that not only an artifact was constructed but also a specific user, the modern efficient housewife.

Berg, M. C., I. Jonsson, et al. (2002). "Relation between breakfast food choices and knowledge of dietary fat and fiber among Swedish schoolchildren." Journal of Adolescent Health 31: 199-207.
	
Berger, M., B. Wallis, et al. (1995). Constructing masculinity. London, Routledge.
	
Bergman, V., S. Larsson, et al. (1994). "Involvement of Maternity and Health-Care Staff in Breast-Feeding."  8(2): 75-80.
	The prerequisites of the staff for their interest and concern in working with questions related to breast-feeding have been studied by questionnaires which were answered by 133 nurses at pregnancy care centres, child health centres and maternity wards. The intention was to identify possible obstacles for the staff in supporting the mother's breast-feeding. In spite of extensive experience and positive attitudes to breast-feeding, about half of the staff found it difficult to work with these questions and to give enough support. The most common reasons for this fact were insufficient knowledge about breast-feeding, few possibilities for further training and a heavy workload. It was also evident that some routines need to be corrected. For instance, information about breast-feeding was provided late during pregnancy, the fathers were infrequently engaged and the communication between the departments was limited. A reorganization of the staff's working routines and their continuous further training in issues related to breast-feeding are recommended.

Berns, N. (2004). Framing the victim : domestic violence, media, and social problems. Hawthorne, N.Y., Aldine de Gruyter.
	
Berovic, N. (2003). "Impact of sociodemographic features of mothers on breastfeeding in Croatia: Questionnaire study." Croatian Medical Journal 44(5): 596-600.
	
Berra, S., N. K. Galvan, et al. (2002). "Newborn feeding in the immediate pospartum period."  36(6): 661-669.
	Objectives To describe the type of newborn feeding in public and private institutions and to investigate its relationship with health practices during delivery and in the puerperium and sociodemographic characteristics. Methods Three hundred and forty-seven representative binomials mother-child of births that occurred in public and private maternity wards in the city of Cordoba, Argentina, were studied. Mothers were interviewed between 24 to 48 hours after delivery. By means of logistic regression analysis the association between health care practices and the type of newborn feeding in public and private institutions was studied, controlling for the effect of sociodemographic and perinatal factors. Statistical analysis was performed using logistic regression, odds ratio, and 95%CI. Results Of the total, 60.4% newborns in public institutions and 2.9% in private institutions were exclusively breastfed. In the public institutions, the risk of partial breastfeeding in the immediate postpartum was significantly higher in children who were not initially fed with mother milk [odds ratio (OR)=149; confidence interval (CI): 95%: 16 7-1332], the first mother-child contact was delayed for more than 45 minutes (OR:4.43; IC 95%: 1.02-19.20) and mother intention was to breastfeed her child for less than 6 months (OR: 5.80; IC: 95% 1.32-25.52); and in private institutions when children were not initially fed with mother milk (OR: 9.88; IC 95%: 1.07-91.15). Conclusions Labor and postpartum care does not comply with the current recommendations and it affects the type of feeding regardless of other factors studied.

Berra, S., L. Rajmil, et al. (2001). "Premature cessation of breastfeeding in infants: development and evaluation of a predictive model in two Argentinian cohorts: the CLACYD study*, 1993-1999."  90(5): 544-551.
	The objective of this study was to develop a model to predict premature cessation of breastfeeding of newborns, in order to detect at-risk groups that would benefit from special assistance programmes. The model was constructed using 700 children with a birthweight of 2000 g or more, in 2 representative cohorts in 1993 and 1995 (CLACYD I sample) in Cordoba, Argentina. Data were analysed from 632 of the cases. Mothers were selected during hospital admittance for childbirth and interviewed in their homes at 1 mo and 6 mo. To evaluate: the model, an additional sample with similar characteristics was drawn during 1998 (CLACYD II sample). A questionnaire was administered to 347 mothers during the first 24-48 h after birth and a follow-up was completed at 6 mo, with weaning information on 291 cases. premature cessation of bnastfeeding was considered when it occurred prior to 6 mo. A logistic regression model was fitted to predict premature end of breastfeeding, and was applied to the CLACYD II sample. The calibration (Hosmer-Lemeshow C statistic) and the discrimination [area under the receiver operating characteristics (ROC) curve] of the model were evaluated. The predictive factors of premature end of breastfeeding were: mother breastfed for less than 6 mo [odds ratio (OR) = 1.84, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.26-2.70], breastfeeding of previous child fur less than 6 mo (OR = 4.01, 95% CI 2.58-6.20), the condition of the firstborn child (OR = 2.75, 95% CI 1.79-4.21), the first mother-child contact occurring after 90 min of life (OR = 1.88; 95% CI 1.23-2.91) and having an unplanned pregnancy (OR = 1.50, 95% CI 1.05-2.15). The calibration of the model was acceptable in the CLACYD I sample (p = 0.54), as well as in the CLACYD II sample (p = 0.18). The areas under the ROC curve were 0.72 and 0.68, respectively. Conclusion: A model has been suggested that provides some insight unto background factors for the premature end of breast-feeding. Although some limitations prevent its general use at a population level, it may be a useful tool in the identification of women with a high probability of early weaning.

Berridge, K., A. F. Hackett, et al. (2004). "The cost of infant feeding in Liverpool, England."  7(8): 1039-1046.
	Objective: To investigate feeding practices in infants under the age of 4 months in Liverpool, England with particular reference to the cost of infant feeding. Design: A cross-sectional survey consisting of self-completion questionnaires and interviews. Setting: Subjects' homes within Central and South Liverpool Primary Care Trust areas. Subjects: One hundred and forty-nine women (aged 18 to 43 years) and their infants (mean age 13 weeks). Results: The average weekly cost of breast-feeding was pound11.58 compared with pound9.60 for formula-feeding. Many breast- and formula-feeding women spent money however on items that were not needed or used only once or twice. This was especially true of first-time mothers. Characteristics significantly associated with higher spending were: feeding method - mothers that had or were partially breast-feeding (P=0.001), education - those educated to degree level (P=0.028), socio-economic status - those in social classes I and II (P=0.002) and age - those aged 30 years and over (P=0.003). Conclusions: This study demonstrates that while breast-feeding is often promoted as being free, this is not the case. Better information needs to be given to parents to avoid wasting money on items that are unnecessary, or where cheaper alternatives are available.

Bhandari, N., S. Mazumder, et al. (2005). "Use of multiple opportunities for improving feeding practices in under-twos within child health programmes." Health Policy and Planning 20(5): 328-336.
	
Bhattacharya, J., J. Currie, et al. (2004). "Poverty, food insecurity, and nutritional outcomes in children and adults." JOURNAL OF HEALTH ECONOMICS 23(4): 839-862.
	Using data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, we examine the relationship between nutritional status, poverty, and food insecurity for household members of various ages. Our most striking result is that, while poverty is predictive of poor nutrition among preschool children, food insecurity does not provide any additional predictive power for this age group. Among school age children, neither poverty nor food insecurity is associated with nutritional outcomes, while among adults and the elderly, both food insecurity and poverty are predictive. These results suggest that researchers should be cautious about assuming connections between food insecurity and nutritional outcomes, particularly among children.

Biggerstaff, M. A., P. M. Morris, et al. "Living on the Edge: Examination of People Attending Food Pantries and Soup Kitchens."
	This article presents information from a study of people receiving food assistance services from food pantries & soup kitchens in VA. The data indicate that significant numbers of individuals & families - many of whom are employed - are seeking food assistance. Many of these individuals also have been homeless, victims of domestic violence, unable to pay their utility bills, or have lost their public benefits. A critical issue raised by the findings is the low rate of participation in the food stamp program. Fewer than 40% of the respondents were receiving food stamps. Although the food stamp program is intended to help households buy a nutritionally adequate diet, there is growing concern that a large segment of low-income Americans are slipping through this safety net. The article concludes with suggestions for social work interventions to address issues of food security. 4 Tables, 26 References. Adapted from the source document.

Bingham, P. M., S. Abassi, et al. (2003). "A pilot study of milk odor effect on nonnutritive sucking by premature newborns." Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 157(1): 72-75.
	
Birch, L. and J. Fisher (1998). "Development of Eating Behaviors Among Children and Adolescents." Pediatrics 101(3): 539-549.
	The prevalence of obesity among children is high and is increasing. We know that obesity runs in families, with children of obese parents at greater risk of developing obesity than children of thin parents. Research on genetic factors in obesity has provided us with estimates of the proportion of the variance in a population accounted for by genetic factors. However, this research does not provide information regarding individual development. To design effective preventive interventions, research is needed to delineate how genetics and environmental factors interact in the etiology of childhood obesity. Addressing this question is especially challenging because parents provide both genes and environment for children.
An enormous amount of learning about food and eating occurs during the transition from the exclusive milk diet of infancy to the omnivore’s diet consumed by early childhood. This early learning is constrained by children’s genetic predispositions, which include the unlearned preference for sweet tastes, salty tastes, and the rejection of sour and bitter tastes. Children also are predisposed to reject new foods and to learn associations between foods’ flavors and the postingestive consequences of eating. Evidence suggests that children can respond to the energy density of the diet and that although intake at individual meals is erratic, 24-hour energy intake is relatively well regulated. There are individual differences in the regulation of energy intake as early as the preschool period. These individual differences in self-regulation are associated with differences in child-feeding practices and with children’s adiposity.
This suggests that child-feeding practices have the potential to affect children’s energy balance via altering patterns of intake. Initial evidence indicates that imposition of stringent parental controls can potentiate preferences for high-fat, energy-dense foods, limit children’s acceptance of a variety of foods, and disrupt children’s regulation of energy intake by altering children’s responsiveness to internal cues of hunger and satiety. This can occur when well-intended but concerned parents assume that children need help in determining what, when, and how much to eat and when parents impose child-feeding practices that provide children with few opportunities for self-control. Implications of these findings for preventive interventions are discussed.

Birch, L. L. (1999). "Development of food preferences." Annual Review of Nutrition 19: 41-62.
	Using a developmental systems perspective, this review focuses on how genetic predispositions interact with aspects of the eating environment to produce phenotypic food preferences. Predispositions include the unlearned, reflexive reactions to basic tastes: the preference for sweet and salty tastes, and the rejection of sour and bitter tastes. Other predispositions are (a) the neophobic reaction to new foods and (b) the ability to learn food preferences based on associations with the contexts and consequences of eating various foods. Whether genetic predispositions are manifested in food preferences that foster healthy diets depends on the eating environment, including food availability and child-feeding practices of the adults. Unfortunately, in the United States today, the ready availability of energy-dense foods, high in sugar, fat, and salt, provides an eating environment that fosters food preferences inconsistent with dietary guidelines, which can promote excess weight gain and obesity. [References: 137]

Birch, L. L. and K. K. Davison (X2001). "Family environmental factors influencing the developing behavioral controls of food intake and childhood overweight." Pediatric Clinics of North America. 48(4): 893-907.
	Although a large body of research has assessed direct genetic links between parent and child weight status, relatively little research has assessed the extent to which parents (particularly parents who are overweight) select environments that promote overweight among their children. Parents provide food environments for their children's early experiences with food and eating. These family eating environments include parents' own eating behaviors and child-feeding practices. Results of the limited research on behavioral mediators of familial patterns of overweight indicate that parents' own eating behaviors and their parenting practices influence the development of children's eating behaviors, mediating familial patterns of overweight. In particular, parents who are overweight, who have problems controlling their own food intake, or who are concerned about their children's risk for overweight may adopt controlling child-feeding practices in an attempt to prevent overweight in their children. Unfortunately, research reveals that these parental control attempts may interact with genetic predispositions to promote the development of problematic eating styles and childhood overweight. Although the authors have argued that behavioral mediators of family resemblances in weight status, such as parents' disinhibited or binge eating and parenting practices are shaped largely by environmental factors, individual differences in these behaviors also have genetic bases. A primary public health goal should be the development of family-based prevention programs for childhood overweight. The findings reviewed here suggest that effective prevention programs must focus on providing anticipatory guidance on parenting to foster patterns of preference and food selection in children more consistent with healthy diets and promote children's ability to self-regulate intake. Guidance for parents should include information on how children develop patterns of food intake in the family context. Practical advice for parents includes how to foster children's preferences for healthy foods and how to promote acceptance of new foods by children. Parents need to understand the costs of coercive feeding practices and be given alternatives to restricting food and pressuring children to eat. Providing parents with easy-to-use information regarding appropriate portion sizes for children is also essential as are suggestions on the timing and frequency of meals and snacks. Especially during early and middle childhood, family environments are the key contents for the development of food preferences, patterns of food intake, eating styles, and the development of activity preferences and patterns that shape children's developing weight status. Designing effective prevention programs will, however, require more complete knowledge than currently available regarding behavioral intermediaries that foster overweight, including the family factors that shape activity patterns, meals taken away from home, the impact of stress on family members' eating styles, food intake, activity patterns, and weight gain. The research presented here provides an example of how ideas regarding the effects of environmental factors and behavioral mediators on childhood overweight can be investigated. Such research requires the development of reliable and valid measures of environmental variables and behaviors. Because childhood overweight is a multifactorial problem, additional research is needed to develop and test theoretic models describing how a wide range of environmental factors and behavioral intermediaries can work in concert with genetic predispositions to promote the development of childhood overweight. The crucial test of these theoretic models will be in preventive interventions. [References: 71]

Birch, L. L. and J. O. Fisher (1998). "Development of eating behaviours among children and adolescents." Pediatrics 101: 539-549.
	
Birch, L. L. and J. O. Fisher (2000). "Mothers' child-feeding practices influence daughters' eating and weight." American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 71(5): 1054-61.
	Background: Childhood overweight has increased dramatically, particularly among young girls. Genetic and environmental factors produce the overweight phenotype. Nonshared environments appear to account for a substantial proportion of the population variance in overweight but remain largely unspecified and unmeasured. Objective: Our goal was to evaluate the influence of maternal control in feeding, an aspect of nonshared family environment, on daughters' eating and relative weight. Design: Structural equation modeling was used to test models that describe maternal influences on daughters' eating and relative weight. The participants were 197 white, non-Hispanic families with 5-y-old daughters. The mothers' own dietary restraint and their perceptions of their daughters' risk of overweight were used to predict maternal control in feeding, which was used to predict the daughters' eating and weight outcomes. Results: Maternal body mass index was a modest predictor of daughters' relative weight. The addition of the family-environment pathway provided a good fit and showed additional, independent prediction of daughters' relative weight. Mothers' dietary restraint and perceptions of their daughters' risk of overweight predicted maternal child-feeding practices, which in turn predicted daughters' eating and relative weight. Conclusions: Child-specific aspects of the family environment, including mothers' child-feeding practices and perceptions of their daughters' risk of overweight, may represent important, nonshared, environmental influences on daughters' eating and relative weight. The environmental effects noted were modest but comparable in magnitude to the direct association between maternal and child weight, which indicates that measuring family environmental factors can enhance our understanding of the etiology of childhood overweight. Copyright (C) 2000 American Society for Clinical Nutrition

Birch, L. L., J. O. Fisher, et al. (2001). "Confirmatory factor analysis of the Child Feeding Questionnaire: a measure of parental attitudes, beliefs and practices about child feeding and obesity proneness." Appetite. 36(3): 201-10.
	The Child Feeding Questionnaire (CFQ) is a self-report measure to assess parental beliefs, attitudes, and practices regarding child feeding, with a focus on obesity proneness in children. Confirmatory factor analysis tested a 7-factor model, which included four factors measuring parental beliefs related to child's obesity proneness, and three factors measuring parental control practices and attitudes regarding child feeding. Using a sample of 394 mothers and fathers, three models were tested, and the third model confirmed an acceptable fit, including correlated factors. Internal consistencies for the seven factors were above 0.70. With minor changes, this same 7-factor model was also confirmed in a second sample of 148 mothers and fathers, and a third sample of 126 Hispanic mothers and fathers. As predicted, four of the seven factors were related to an independent measure of children's weight status, providing initial support for the validity of the instrument. The CFQ can be used to assess aspects of child-feeding perceptions, attitudes, and practices and their relationships to children's developing food acceptance patterns, the controls of food intake, and obesity. The CFQ is designed for use with parents of children ranging in age from about 2 to 11 years of age. Copyright 2000 Academic Press.

Bird, E. (1998). "'High Class Cookery': gender, status and domestic subjects, 1890-1930." Gender and Education 10(2): 117-131.
	
Blake, C. and C. A. Bisogni (2003). "Personal and family food choice schemas of rural women in upstate New York." Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior. 35(6): 282.
	Objective: The purpose of this study was to gain conceptual understanding of the cognitive processes involved in food choice among low- to moderate-income rural women. Design: This interpretivist study used grounded theory methods and a theory-guided approach. Participants/Setting: Sixteen women aged 18 to 50 years from varied household compositions were purposively recruited in an upstate New York rural county. Methods: Semi-structured interviews were conducted. Verbatim transcripts were analyzed using the constant comparative method. Results: Study participants held both personal and family food choice schemas characterized by food meanings and behavioral scripts. Food meanings encompassed self-reported beliefs and feelings associated with food. Food choice scripts described behavioral plans for regularized food and eating situations. Five personal food choice schemas (dieter, health fanatic, picky eater, nonrestrictive eater, inconsistent eater) and 4 family food choice schemas (peacekeeper, healthy provider, struggler, partnership) emerged. Conclusions and Implications: The findings advance conceptual understanding of the cognitive processes involved in food choice by demonstrating the existence of different food choice schemas for personal and family food choice situations. Further study is needed on food choice schemas in different populations in various food and eating situations.

Blake, C. and C. A. Bisogni (2003). "Personal and family food choice schemas of rural women in upstate New York." Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior 35(6): 282-293.
	Objective: The purpose of this study was to gain conceptual understanding of the cognitive processes involved in food choice among low- to moderate-income rural women. 
Design: This interpretivist study used grounded theory methods and a theory-guided approach.

Participants/Setting: Sixteen women aged 18 to 50 years from varied household compositions were purposively recruited in an upstate New York rural county.

Methods: Semi-structured interviews were conducted. Verbatim transcripts were analyzed using the constant comparative method.

Results: Study participants held both personal and family food choice schemas characterized by food meanings and behavioral scripts. Food meanings encompassed self-reported beliefs and feelings associated with food. Food choice scripts described behavioral plans for regularized food and eating situations. Five personal food choice schemas (dieter, health fanatic, picky eater, nonrestrictive eater, inconsistent eater) and 4 family food choice schemas (peacekeeper, healthy provider, struggler, partnership) emerged.

Conclusions and Implications: The findings advance conceptual understanding of the cognitive processes involved in food choice by demonstrating the existence of different food choice schemas for personal and family food choice situations. Further study is needed on food choice schemas in different populations in various food and eating situations.

Bland, R. M., N. C. Rollins, et al. (2003). "Maternal recall of exclusive breast feeding duration."  88(9): 778-783.
	Background: Both the pattern and duration of breast feeding are important determinants of health outcomes. In vertical HIV transmission research, reliable documentation of early breast feeding practices is important in order to correctly attribute postnatal transmission to feeding pattern. Aims: To validate methods of collecting data on the duration of exclusive breast feeding (EBF) in an area of South Africa with a high HIV prevalence rate. Methods: A total of 130 mothers were interviewed weekly, postnatally. At every interview a 48 hour and a seven day recall breast feeding history were taken. A subset of 70 mothers also received two intermediate visits per week during which additional 48 hour, non-overlapping, recall interviews were conducted. Ninety three infants were revisited at 6 - 9 months of age when mothers' recall of EBF duration from birth was documented. The different methods of recalling EBF status were compared against an a priori "best comparison" in each case. Results: Reported breast feeding practices over the previous 48 hours did not reflect EBF practices since birth ( specificity 65 - 89%; positive predictive value 31 - 48%). Six month EBF duration recall was equally poor ( sensitivity at 2 weeks 79%; specificity 40%). Seven day recall accurately reflected EBF practices compared with thrice weekly recall over the same time period ( sensitivity 96%, specificity 94%). Conclusions: 48 hour EBF status does not accurately reflect feeding practices since birth. Long term recall data on EBF are even more inaccurate. We recommend that data on duration of EBF be collected prospectively at intervals of no longer than one week.

Blaylock, J., D. Smallwood, et al. (1999). "Economics, food choices and nutrition." Food Policy 24: 269-286.
	
Bliss, M. C., J. Wilkie, et al. (1997). "The effect of discharge pack formula and breast pumps on breastfeeding duration and choice of infant feeding method."  24(2): 90-97.
	Background: A study of breast feeding mothers was conducted from October 1993 through July 1994 in the western United States to determine the influence of components of hospital discharge packs on the duration of breastfeeding. Method: On discharge from the hospital, over 1600 breastfeeding mothers were given one of four free discharge packs, identical in all ways except that one contained a can of powdered formula, one a manual breast pump, one both formula and primp, and one neither. During the following 6 months, mothers were interviewed by telephone three times by an independent research firm to determine how and what they were feeding their infants. Analysis of the independent and interactive effects of both formula and pump was performed and the moderating effects of age, ethnicity, marital and insurance status, prebirth feeding plan, and the effect of returning to outside employment or school were examined Results: Across the entire sample, the contents of the discharge packs had a negligible effect on feeding method and breastfeeding duration. Examination of select subgroups revealed modest discharge pack effects, wherein the presence of discharge pack formula increased the likelihood of introducing supplementation during the first 6 weeks whereas receipt of pumps prolonged full breastfeeding. Even in these select groups, however no effect was observed on the overall duration of breastfeeding. Conclusion: Relative to other known influences on the choice of feeding method and on breastfeeding duration, discharge pack contents do not merit great concern.

Blyth, R., D. K. Creedy, et al. (2002). "Effect of maternal confidence on breastfeeding duration: An application of breastfeeding self-efficacy theory." Birth-Issues in Perinatal Care 29(4): 278-284.
	
Bo, S., G. Menato, et al. (2001). "Dietary fat and gestational hyperglycaemia."  44(8): 972-978.
	Aims/hypothesis. The purpose of this study was to investigate the relation between life-style habits and glucose abnormalities in Caucasian women with and without conventional risk factors for gestational diabetes. Methods. A total of 126 pregnant women with gestational diabetes. 84 with impaired glucose tolerance and 294 with normal glucose tolerance, identified by sequential screening, were interviewed to determine their usual weekly food pattern, amount of exercise, smoking habits and alcohol intake. Results. Patients with glucose abnormalities were older and shorter in height and had significantly higher BMI before pregnancy, percentage of diabetic first-degree relatives and higher intake of saturated fat. Patients without known risk factors for gestational diabetes (i.e. younger than 35 years of age, BMI < 25 kg/m(2), no first-degree diabetic relatives) included 40 with impaired glucose tolerance or gestational diabetes. In a multiple logistic regression model age, short stature, familial diabetes, BMI and percentages of saturated fat were associated with impaired glucose tolerance or gestational diabetes in all patients, after adjustment for gestational age. In patients without conventional risk factors only percentages of saturated fat (OR = 2.0, 95%-CI = 1.2-3.2) and polyunsaturated fat (OR = 0.85; 95%-CI = 0.77-0.92) were associated with gestational hyperglycaemia, after adjustment for age, gestational age and BMI. Conclusion/interpretation. Saturated fat has an independent role in the development of gestational glucose abnormalities. This role is more important in the absence of conventional risk factors suggesting that glucose abnormalities could be prevented during pregnancy, at least in some groups of women.

Boardman, K. (1994). Representations of femininity, domesticity, sexuality, work and independence in mid-Victorian women's magazines, University of Strathclyde.
	
Boardman, K. (2000). "The Ideology of Domesticity: the Regulation of the Household Economy in Victorian Women's Magazines." Victorian Periodicals Review 33(2): 150-164.
	Discusses the effects that Victorian women's magazines aimed at middle-class and working-class readers had on their understanding and embracing of gender and class roles embodied in a domesticity centered on household economy and managing or working as servants.

Boas, G. and A. O. Lovejoy (1935). Primitivism and Related Ideas in Antiquity. Baltimore, John Hopkins.
	
Bobel, C. G. (2001). "Bounded liberation - A focused study of La Leche League International."  15(1): 130-151.
	Combining participant observation with in-depth interviewing, this small-scale, focused study examines the philosophies and practices promoted by La Leche League International (LLLI), the foremost international breast-feeding support organization. In particular: the study examines four linked conceptual paradoxes related to reconceptualizing women's bodies, validating motherhood, staying home, and living with baby, each representing an internal contradiction of liberation and constraint for League members. While LLLI's prescriptions for "good mothering through breast-feeding" may encourage women to reclaim their bodies, boost their sense of competence at mothers, and resist conventional authorities, at the the some time, the League's conception of what it means to be a good mother pushes women into socially prescribed and limiting roles rooted in biological determinism.

Bober, S. J., R. Humphry, et al. (2001). "Toddlers' persistence in the emerging occupations of functional play and self-feeding."  55(4): 369-376.
	Objective. This descriptive study explores motivation of toddlers who are typically developing to persist with challenging occupations. Method. The persistence of 33 children, 12 to 19 months of age (M = 15.7 months), in functional play and self-feeding with a utensil was examined through videotape analysis of on-task behaviors. Results. A modest correlation was demonstrated between the percentages of on-task time in the two conditions (r =.44, p < .01). Although chronological age was not associated with persistence, participants' age-equivalent fine motor scores were correlated with persistence with challenging toys (r = .33, p < .03) but not with self-feeding with a utensil. Having an older sibling was associated with longer periods of functional play, t(32) = 3.02, p < .005, but the amount the parent urged the child to eat with a utensil was not associated with persistence in self-feeding. Conclusion. The modest association between on-task time for functional play and self-feeding with a utensil reveals that factors other than urge to meet perceptual motor challenges lead to children's persistence. The results reinforce the importance of considering not. only challenging activities, but also the experienced meaning that elicits optimal effort and, thus, learning.

Bodnarchuk, J. L., W. O. Eaton, et al. (2006). "Transitions in Breastfeeding: Daily Parent Diaries Provide Evidence of Behavior Over Time." J Hum Lact %R 10.1177/0890334406286992 22(2): 166-174.
	This study addressed a key question for assessing breastfeeding duration: at what point is an infant considered no longer exclusively breastfed or no longer breastfed at all? Mothers provided longitudinal infant feeding data via daily checklists. Transitions between exclusive to partial breastfeeding and partial to no breastfeeding were compared across 11 time periods for 10 age groups of infants. Daily transitions between exclusive and partial breastfeeding were common, especially for infants 6 months of age and younger, and transitions from partial to no breastfeeding occurred much more quickly than transitions from exclusive to partial breast-feeding. Ages at supplementation and weaning calculated in 1-day or 7-day spans correlated highly (intraclass correlation = .99). These results support the Breastfeeding Definitions and Data Collection Periods guideline recently developed by the Breastfeeding Committee for Canada and may bring the breastfeeding research and clinical communities closer to a consensus on the definition of breastfeeding over time.

Bolin, K., Lindgren, B., Lindstrom, Nystedt, P. (2003). "Investments in social capital -implications of social interactions for the production of health." Social Science & Medicine 56(1421-1435).
	
Booth, S. "Researching Health and Homelessness: Methodological Challenges for Researchers Working with a Vulnerable, Hard to Reach, Transient Population."
	Outlines methodological considerations for researchers working with vulnerable, transient, hard-to-reach populations in the context of planning a study to examine the food & nutrition issues for homeless young people in inner-city Adelaide, Australia. Although homelessness is the focus, many of the points are transferable to other "hidden" or hard-to-reach populations. This applies particularly to those whose lives can be characterized by stigmatization & powerlessness, eg, people with mental illness, sex workers, drug users/dealers, or transsexuals, ie, groups that are relatively "invisible" on a daily basis. 13 References. Adapted from the source document.

Botsford, A. (2003). "Family policy. The value of applying family systems theory in social policymaking." Gerontologist 43: 286-287.
	
Botshon, L. and M. Goldsmith (2003). Middlebrow moderns : popular American women writers of the 1920s. Boston, Mass., Northeastern University Press ; [London : Eurospan, distributor].
	
Bottorff, J., L. , J. Oliffe, et al. (2006). "Men's constructions of smoking in the context of women's tobacco reduction during pregnancy and postpartum " Social Science and Medicine 62(12): 3096-3108 
	Men's smoking is largely under-examined despite research that has consistently linked partner smoking to pregnant women's smoking and smoking relapse in the postpartum. An on-going qualitative study involving 31 couples in Canada exploring the influence of couple interactions on women's tobacco reduction provided the opportunity to examine men's smoking in the context of women's tobacco reduction or cessation during pregnancy and postpartum. Individual open-ended interviews with 20 men who smoked were conducted at 0–6 weeks following the birth of their infants and again at 16–24 weeks postpartum. Constant comparative methods were used along with social constructivist perspectives of fatherhood and gender to guide data analysis and enhance theoretical sensitivity. Four themes emerged in men's accounts of their tobacco use: (1) expressing masculinity through smoking, (2) reconciling smoking as a family man, (3) losing the freedom to smoke, and (4) resisting a smoke-less life. Men's reliance on and commitment to dominant ideals of masculinity seemed to preclude them from viewing their partner's tobacco reduction or cessation for pregnancy as an opportunity for cessation. Expectant and new fathers who smoke, however, may be optimally targeted for cessation interventions because it is a time when men experience discomfort with their smoking and when discontinuities in everyday life associated with the transition to fatherhood and presence of a new baby provide opportunities for establishing new routines. Implications for gender-sensitive smoking cessation interventions are discussed. 

Boumtje, P. I., C. L. Huang, et al. (2005). "Dietary habits, demographics and the development of overweight and obesity among children in the United States." Food Policy 30: 115-128.
	
Bourcier, E., D. J. Bowen, et al. (2003). "Evaluation of strategies used by family food preparers to influence healthy eating." Appetite 41(3): 265-272.
	The family may exert powerful influence on family members' eating habits, though there is very little conclusive literature regarding the specific mechanisms. The authors investigated how often family food preparers use particular strategies to encourage their families to eat more healthily and then related these strategies to healthy eating outcomes in children. We identified significant differences in strategy use between family age subgroups, and we included strategy types in multiple linear regression models to predict differences in families with children. Results indicate that discussing healthy food related to 'Pressuring' strategies and discussing healthy eating related to 'Feeling and looking good' predicted healthy eating outcomes. Findings have implications for designing dietary interventions to have the largest public health impact. copyright 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Bourcier, E., D. J. Bowen, et al. (2003). "Evaluation of strategies used by family food preparers to influence healthy eating: Research Report." Appetite 41: 265-272.
	The family may exert powerful influence on family members' eating habits, though there is very little conclusive literature regarding the specific mechanisms. The authors investigated how often family food preparers use particular strategies to encourage their families to eat more healthily and then related these strategies to healthy eating outcomes in children. We identified significant differences in strategy use between family age subgroups, and we included strategy types in multiple linear regression models to predict differences in families with children. Results indicate that discussing healthy food related to 'Pressuring' strategies and discussing healthy eating related to 'Feeling and looking good' predicted healthy eating outcomes. Findings have implications for designing dietary interventions to have the largest public health impact.

Bourdieu, P. (1979). Distinction: a social critique of the judgment of taste. London, Routledge.
	
Bourdieu, P. (1986). Distinction : a social critique of the judgement of taste. London, Routledge & Kegan Paul.
	
Bourdieu, P. (1986). The forms of capital. Handbook of theory and research for the sociology of education. J. G. R. (Ed.). New York:, Greewood Press.
	
Bower, J. A. and L. Sandall (2002). "Children as Consumers - snacking behaviour inprimary school children." International Journal of Consumer Studies 26(1): 15-26.
	
Bowlby, S., S. Gregory, et al. (1997). "'Doing Home': Patriarchy, Caring, and Space." Women's Studies International Forum 20(3): 343-350.
	
Braithwaite, B. (1995). Women's magazines : the first 300 years. London, Peter Owen.
	
Braithwaite, B. and J. Barrell (1979). The business of women's magazines : the agonies and the ecstasies. London, Associated Business Press.
	
Braithwaite, B. and J. Barrell (1988). The business of women's magazines. London, Kogan Page.
	
Bramhagen, A. C., I. Axelsson, et al. (2006). "Mothers' experiences of feeding situations - an interview study."  15(1): 29-34.
	Aim. The aim of the study was to describe parents' experiences concerning feeding situations and their contact with the nurse at the Child Health Service (CHS). Background. Some of the most important tasks for the nurse at the CHS are to monitor growth, detect feeding difficulties and give advice concerning food intake and feeding practices. Method. Eighteen mothers differing in age, education, ethnicity and number of children and recruited from different CHS were interviewed. The narratives were transcribed verbatim and analysed by content analysis at manifest and latent levels. Result. All mothers' described that food and feeding were essential parts of their lives requiring a great deal of time and involvement. Two major categories of mothers' attitudes in feeding situations were identified - a flexible attitude and a controlling attitude. Mothers with a flexible attitude were sensitive to the child's signals and responded to them in order to obtain good communication. Mothers who expressed a need for control established rules and routines regarding the feeding situations. Mothers with a controlling attitude expressed receiving inadequate support from the nurse at the CHS. Conclusion and clinical implication. This study shows that some mothers experience inadequate support from the nurse at the CHS. Knowledge about mothers' experiences of feeding situations and their different attitudes towards the child during feeding might improve the CHS nurses' knowledge and help them understand and more adequately support mothers who experience feeding difficulties.

Brandt-Meyer, E. and S. S. Butler. "Food for People, Not for Profit: Meanings of a Farm Project for Homeless and Very Poor Participants."
	The design of programs that address homelessness & extreme poverty are seldom informed by the people that such programs most affect: the homeless & very poor themselves. Presented here as a case example is the Farm Project, describing what it meant to a group of 28 homeless & very poor participants in a small northeastern city. The Farm Project intervention was based on the practice principles of empowerment, self-determination, & self-efficacy. Using a naturalistic design, & drawing on data from semistructured interviews, identified are three thematic categories: personal & emotional meanings, group experience & interactional meanings, & resource acquisition meanings. Participants found the project to be of significant personal benefit. 16 References. Adapted from the source document.

Brann, L. S. and J. D. Skinner (2005). "More controlling child-feeding practices are found among parents of boys with an average body mass index compared with parents of boys with a high body mass index." Journal of the American Dietetic Association 105(9): 1411-1416.
	Objective To determine if differences existed in mothers' and fathers' perceptions of their sons' weight, controlling child-feeding practices (ie, restriction, monitoring, and pressure to eat), and parenting styles (ie, authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive) by their sons' body mass index (BMI). Design One person (L.S.B.) interviewed mothers and boys using validated questionnaires and measured boys' weight and height; fathers completed questionnaires independently. Subjects/setting Subjects were white, preadolescent boys and their parents. Boys were grouped by their BMI into an average BMI group (n=25; BMI percentile between 33rd and 68th) and a high BMI group (n=24; BMI percentile >= 85th). Statistical analyses performed Multivariate analyses of variance and analyses of variance. Results Mothers and fathers of boys with a high BMI saw their sons as more overweight (mothers P=.03, fathers P=.01), were more concerned about their sons' weight (P <.0001, P=.004), and used pressure to eat with their sons less often than mothers and fathers of boys with an average BMI (P <.0001, P <.0001). In addition, fathers of boys with a high BMI monitored their sons' eating less often than fathers of boys with an average BMI (P=.006). No differences were found in parenting by boys' BMI groups for either mothers or fathers. Conclusions More controlling child-feeding practices were found among mothers (pressure to eat) and fathers (pressure to eat and monitoring) of boys with an average BMI compared with parents of boys with a high BMI. A better understanding of the relationships between feeding practices and boys' weight is necessary. However, longitudinal research is needed to provide evidence of causal association.

Brann, L. S. and J. D. Skinner (2005). "More controlling child-feeding practices are found among parents of boys with an average body mass index compared with parents of boys with a high body mass index."  105(9): 1411-1416.
	Objective To determine if differences existed in mothers' and fathers' perceptions of their sons' weight, controlling child-feeding practices (ie, restriction, monitoring, and pressure to eat), and parenting styles (ie, authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive) by their sons' body mass index (BMI). Design One person (L.S.B.) interviewed mothers and boys using validated questionnaires and measured boys' weight and height; fathers completed questionnaires independently. Subjects/setting Subjects were white, preadolescent boys and their parents. Boys were grouped by their BMI into an average BMI group (n=25; BMI percentile between 33rd and 68th) and a high BMI group (n=24; BMI percentile >= 85th). Statistical analyses performed Multivariate analyses of variance and analyses of variance. Results Mothers and fathers of boys with a high BMI saw their sons as more overweight (mothers P=.03, fathers P=.01), were more concerned about their sons' weight (P <.0001, P=.004), and used pressure to eat with their sons less often than mothers and fathers of boys with an average BMI (P <.0001, P <.0001). In addition, fathers of boys with a high BMI monitored their sons' eating less often than fathers of boys with an average BMI (P=.006). No differences were found in parenting by boys' BMI groups for either mothers or fathers. Conclusions More controlling child-feeding practices were found among mothers (pressure to eat) and fathers (pressure to eat and monitoring) of boys with an average BMI compared with parents of boys with a high BMI. A better understanding of the relationships between feeding practices and boys' weight is necessary. However, longitudinal research is needed to provide evidence of causal association.

Brannen, J. (1995). "Young-People and Their Contribution to Household Work." Sociology-the Journal of the British Sociological Association 29(2): 317-338.
	This article considers the theoretical and empirical neglect of children's contribution to household work. It draws upon a two-stage study of the transfer of responsibility from parents to their sixteen year-olds; a questionnaire survey of 843 young people and an interview study of parents and young people in 64 households. It considers the frequency and nature of young people's contribution to housework and changes taking place between the questionnaire and the interview studies, and makes the distinction between family-care and self-care. Drawing on the interview accounts, it examines parents' general expectations of young people in respect of housework and, more specifically, the ways these negotiations work out in practice with respect to a number of criteria - gender, cultural values, age and birth order, mothers' employment and young people's employment and education. These factors were also found to structure the survey data.

Brannen, J. and M. Obrien (1995). "Social Focus on Children - Church,J, Summerfield,C." Sociology-the Journal of the British Sociological Association 29(4): 729-737.
	
Brannen, J. and P. Storey (1998). "School meals and the start of secondary school." Health Education Research 13(1): 73-86.
	The article draws on empirical data from a study of children's health in the context of children's transition to secondary school. It focuses upon the school food practices of children in the context of changes which have occurred in recent years within the UK secondary school meals service, i.e. a move from 'meal provision' via Local Education Authorities to the individualized, commercial system of 'food choice'. The study draws upon: (1) extensive data from a questionnaire survey (N = 536) with children which was conducted in three state secondary schools in West London containing a high proportion of ethnic minority (Asian origin) children; and (2) intensive case study data from a subsample of 31 households, drawn from the survey according to the following criteria: mothers' employment status (full-time and nonemployed), sex of child, household composition (single mother and two parent households! and ethnic origin of parents (UK origin and Asian origin). The children and their mothers and fathers were separately interviewed. Drawing on both the quantitative and qualitative data, the article describes the school as a site of food consumption and identifies different kinds of food practices of children in their first year of secondary school which are mediated by a variety of factors. These include: the sex of the child, household resources via parental employment the decisions and choices of children themselves, and the strategies that parents (mothers:, employ to control their children's diet. The option available to children to make choices about food emerges as an attractive and novel feature of moving to secondary school, but one that may have consequences for children's health because of the mode of food supply and the nature of the food on offer.

Braun, B. (2001). Perspectives on Parenting. Children in Society - Contemporary Theory, Policy and Practice. P. Foley, J. Roche and S. Tucker. Basingstoke, Palgrave: 239-248.
	
Brembeck, H. (2004). Pinnochio Meets Jafar: The Wonders of Happy Meal Toys. Beyond the Competent Child: Exploring contemporary childhoods in the Nordic welfare societies. H. Brembeck, B. Johansson and J. Kampmann. Roskilde, Roskilde University Press: 293-313.
	
Brembeck, H. (2005). "Home to McDonald's: Upholding the family dinner with the help of McDonald's." Food, Culture and Society 8(2): 216-226.
	
Brembeck, H. (2005). Supervising Healthy Eating: Swedish Women Fighting the Gender Barrier. Faire La cuisine, Toulouse.
	The work of feeding the family is generally regarded as intimately bound to identities as a woman, souse and mother, leading to the trauma of the 'empty nest' when children are leaving home. This paper challenges these statements, using examles from an ongoing project of Swedish 'baby-boomer' women born in the 1940s. For these women cooking and the preparation of food for the family is not altogether intertwined with their identities as women. They have generally accepted the main repsonsibility for feeding the family, but not as a devotional work of love on their own, but rather as supervisors of the children and the husband, who in many instances are the ones doing most oart of the practical work. For the baby-boomer women in this study, cooking and provisioning is not an essential part of female identity, but is seen as something that might be undertaken by any family member regardless of sex.

Brembeck, H., B. Johansson, et al., Eds. (2004). Beyond the Competent Child: Exploring contemporary childhoods in the Nordic welfare societies. Roskilde, Roskilde University Press.
	
Brewis, A. and M. Gartin (X2006). "Biocultural construction of obesogenic ecologies of childhood: Parent-feeding versus child-eating strategies." American Journal of Human Biology 18(2): 203-213.
	Human biologists recognize the centrality of parental feeding beliefs and related practices in structuring children's under-nutrition risk in food-insecure settings. By contrast, how they might similarly structure children's nutrition-related health risks in calorically rich ecologies has barely been considered. Using the case of 3- to 6-year-old children in a rural Southeastern U.S. community with very high obesity rates, we use cognitive methods such as consensus analysis to determine how parental cultural models of child eating and feeding are linked to high calorie, obesogenic child diets. We find that parental models are very consistent with biomedical understandings (reduce fat, reduce sugar, portion control, etc.). Regardless, children's diets are extremely high in calories overall as well as in high sugar and fat food items. We suggest three likely and mutually reinforcing contributing factors to persistent and increasing early childhood overweight and obesity: parents' ambivalence about modeling healthy eating, children's active resistance, and the balance of parents' social against nutritive goals at mealtimes. The active role of children as social architects of their own biology has been little explored in human biological studies, and should provide novel and important understandings of the biocultural construction of childhood over-nutrition.

Briefel, R., P. Ziegler, et al. (2006). "Feeding Infants and Toddlers Study: Characteristics and usual nutrient intake of hispanic and non-hispanic infants and toddlers."  106(1): S84-S95.
	Objective To compare demographic and maternal characteristics and usual nutrient intakes of Hispanic and non-Hispanic infants and toddlers 4 to 24 months of age in the United States. Design We conducted three interviews by telephone to collect information on sociodemographic and maternal characteristics, feeding practices, and dietary intake in the 2002 Feeding Infants and Toddlers Study. We collected 24-hour dietary recalls, including a second day's intake on a subsample, using the Nutrition Data System for Research. We used the Personal Computer version of the Software for Intake Distribution Estimation to estimate usual nutrient intake and nutrient adequacy and excess for three age subgroups-infants 4-5 months, infants 6-11 months, and toddlers 12-24 months-and Hispanic or non-Hispanic ethnicity. Subjects A national sample of 3,022 infants and toddlers age 4-24 months, including 371 Hispanic and 2,637 non-Hispanic subjects. Statistical analysis We compared means, percentile distributions, and percentages by age/Hispanic ethnicity subgroup, and applied the Dietary Reference Intakes to assess nutrient intakes. Results Mothers of Hispanic infants and toddlers were younger, less likely to be married, and had lower education levels than mothers of non-Hispanic infants and toddlers (P < .01). Hispanic infants and toddlers had significantly higher rates of participation in the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children than non-Hispanic infants and toddlers (42% to 23%) and were more likely to reside in urban areas and have lower annual household income levels (P < .01). There were no significant differences in usual energy intake between Hispanic and non-Hispanic infants and toddlers, and mean usual energy intake exceeded the mean estimated energy requirement for all age/ethnicity subgroups. Hispanic toddlers consumed a significantly higher proportion of energy from carbohydrate (56% to 53%, P < .01) and a significantly lower percentage of energy from fat (31% to 33%, P < .01) than nonHispanics. Comparing usual mean intakes, Hispanic infants age 6 to 11 months had a significantly lower intake of calcium than non-Hispanics (means of 574 mg and 626 mg per day, respectively, P < .05) and a significantly higher intake of sodium compared with non-Hispanics of the same age (means of 647 mg to 476 mg per day, P < .01). For infants, mean usual intakes were adequate for all nutrients. For toddlers, the prevalence of nutrient inadequacy was low (< 1%) with the exception of vitamin E, which was inadequate for 39% of Hispanic toddlers and 50% of non-Hispanic toddlers. For nutrients with defined Tolerable Upper Intake Levels, more than one third to almost half of toddlers exceeded the Tolerable Upper Intake Levels for vitamin A and zinc, and more than half (53% and 58% for Hispanics and non-Hispanic toddlers, respectively) exceeded the Tolerable Upper Intake Level for sodium. Usual mean intakes of vitamins A, C, and E and folate, potassium, and fiber were significantly higher among Hispanic toddlers compared with non-Hispanic toddlers. Conclusions The Feeding Infants and Toddlers Study data provide information that is useful to practitioners, Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children program staff, and parents for delivering nutrition education messages that are consistent with dietary guidance for infants and toddlers as well as compatible with cultural preferences.

Brod, H. and M. Kaufman (1994). Theorizing masculinities. Thousand Oaks, CA, Sage Publications.
	
Brown, R. T., A. Madan-Swain, et al. (2003). "Posttraumatic stress symptoms in adolescent survivors of childhood cancer and their mothers." Journal of Traumatic Stress 16(4): 309-318.
	We examined symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in adolescent survivors of childhood cancer and their mothers and the contribution of family functioning, including perceived emotional support and familial conflict, and individual factors including life stress and severity of disease to PTSD symptoms. Participants were 52 adolescent cancer survivors and their mothers and 42 healthy adolescent counterparts and their mothers. Findings revealed that mothers of cancer survivors endorsed more PTSD symptoms than did their healthy counterparts and that survivors and mothers also reported greater recent and past stressful life events. Although no survivors met clinical criteria for a PTSD diagnosis, over 36% endorsed mild subthreshold symptomatology. Findings are discussed in the context of understanding PTSD symptoms within a family systems framework

Brown, T., K. Klingaman, et al. (2005). "Body orientations, sleep positions, and breast feeding behavior amongst solitary and co-sleeping (bedsharing) human mother-infant pairs: mutual physiological regulatory effects." American Journal of Physical Anthropology: 80-80.
	
Brunner, E., M. Rayner, et al. (2001). "Making public health nutrition relevant to evidence-based action." Public Health Nutrition 4(6): 1297-1299.
	
Brunt, D. and L. Hansson. (2002). "The social networks of persons with severe mental illness in in-patient settings and supported community settings."
	The social networks of individuals with severe mental illness admitted to long-term in-patient settings and living in two types of supported housing, small congregate community residences and independent living with support, were compared. The Interview Schedule for Social Interaction (ISSI) was used. The results showed no substantial differences in social networks between the two types of supported community residences. These were pooled for further analyses and comparisons between in-patient settings and supported community settings. No differences were found between the two settings either for the four subscales of ISSI or for the overall ISSI score. Stepwise regression analysis revealed a positive association between perceived quality of life and social network and an inverse relation between negative symptoms and social network. Other factors possibly influencing social networks across housing settings are discussed. More qualitative data is called for in the study of social networks of persons with severe mental illness. (Original abstract)

Bruss, M. B., J. Morris, et al. (2003). "Prevention of childhood obesity: sociocultural and familial factors." Journal of the American Dietetic Association 103(8): 1042-1045.
	
Brynhildsen, J., A. Sydsjö, et al. (2006). "Trends in body mass index during early pregnancy in Swedish women 1978–2001 " Public Health 120(5): 393-399 
	Objective: to study the body mass index (BMI) in women seeking maternity health care during early pregnancy in Sweden, and to show trends for a period of more than 20 years.

Study design: register study.

Methods: data from the maternity health programme on consecutively delivered women in two Swedish hospitals were collected for the years 1978, 1986, 1992, 1997 and 2001. All women were weighed at their first midwife visit between 8 and 10 weeks of gestation and height was also measured.

Results: data on 4883 women were collected. Data on weight were available for 4490 (92%) women and data on BMI were available for 4378 (90%) women. The age-adjusted average weight increased from 59.5 kg in 1978 to 68.2 kg in 2001, and the BMI increased from 21.7 in 1978 to 24.7 in 2001. In 2001, 38.6% of the women had a BMI >25 compared with 11.2 in 1978. In 2001, 11.6% of the women were obese compared with 2.2% in 1978.

Conclusions: during the last two decades, an alarming increase in weight has occurred in Swedish women of childbearing age. 

Buchinger, B. (1992). "On the Undigestible - Body, Politics, Women."  21(1): 79-88.
	This article deals with the phenomenon of women's eating disorders, focusing especially on bulemia, first identified about twenty years ago. The problematic aspects of current clinical debate on this phenomenon become evident when viewed as a product and expression of an asymetric and unequal sex-gender-system. The first part of the article describes the symptoms and experiences of individual women followed by a brief overview of the "social cultural substrata" involved, thus supplying the nexus of the individual and political. The family, especially mother-daughter relationship, is examined as expressions of a sex-gender-system, followed by social analysis of "nourishment" and the "body". The paper underscores the biased social organization of the relationship between the sexes, shows how bulemia can be interpreted as a form of female struggle towards a "femininity in its own right and legality".

Buhling, K. J., B. Kurzidim, et al. (2004). "Introductory experience with the continuous glucose monitoring system (CGMS (R); Medtronic Minimed (R)) in detecting hyperglycemia by comparing the self-monitoring of blood glucose (SMBG) in non-pregnant women and in pregnant women with impaired glucose tolerance and gestational diabetes."  112(10): 556-560.
	Objective: To assess the detection rate of hyperglycemia with a continuous glucose monitoring system compared to a self-monitoring blood glucose profile in non-pregnant, non-diabetic pregnant women, and patients with impaired glucose tolerance or gestational diabetes. Methods: Eight non-pregnant (NP) and 56 pregnant women (17 dietary-treated gestational diabetics (GDM), 15 women with impaired glucose tolerance (IGT), and 24 non-diabetic pregnant women (NDP)) underwent a 72-hour measurement with the CGMS((R)) (Medtronic Minimed((R)), Northridge, CA, USA). Self-monitored blood glucose measurements, performed 30 minutes before and 120 minutes after each meal, were compared to the duration of hyperglycemia monitored by the continuous glucose monitoring system. Results: No clinically observable infection was found at the subcutaneous tissue where the electrode was placed. A statistically significant difference was found between the groups in body mass index, HbA1c, and in gestational age, but not in age or parity. Using the self-monitored blood glucose (SMBG), 88% (7/8) of the NP and 54% (13/24) of the NDP had no measurement above 6.7 mmol/l. However, 17% (4/24) of the NDP and 40% (6/15) of the IGT showed more than two measurements above 6.7 mmol/l compared to 24% (4/17) of the dietary-treated GDM. The differences between these groups were not significant (p = 0.21). The mean durations (+/- SD) of hyperglycemia above 6.7 mmol/l/24 h were: NP 111 +/- 120 min, NDP 138 +/- 120 min, IGT 381.8 +/- 295 min, and GDM 190 +/- 155 min, p = 0.017; above 7.8 mmol/l/24 h NP 24 +/- 49 min, NDP 38 +/- 47 min, IGT 170.7 +/- 190 min, and GDM 64 +/- 88 min, p=0.016; and above 8.9 mmol/l/24 h NP 9.3 +/- 25 min, NDP 7.5 +/- 14 min, IGT 59 +/- 77 min, and GDM 14 +/- 21 min, p = 0.026. There was no significant difference in the fetal outcome or rate of birth percentiles using the sensor data. Conclusions: The use of the sensor in pregnant women is unproblematic. a) The CGMS((R)) detected more frequent and longer durations of hyperglycemia in GDM compared to non-diabetic pregnant women than the SMBG. b) Women with an IGT exhibited higher glucose levels than patients with gestational diabetes. c) The clinical importance of these hyperglycemic intervals, e.g. with respect to the risk for macrosomia, must be assessed in larger trials.

Buhling, K. J., T. Winkel, et al. (2005). "Optimal timing for postprandial glucose measurement in pregnant women with diabetes and a non-diabetic pregnant population evaluated by the Continuous Glucose Monitoring System (CGMS (R))."  33(2): 125-131.
	Objective: Using the Continuous Glucose Monitoring System (CGMS(R); Medtronic Minimed) for a group of pregnant women with and without glucose intolerance, we attempted to answer the following questions: (1) when does the physiological peak of postprandial glucose occur?; (2) do non-diabetic pregnant women and pregnant women with diabetes have different postprandial glucose profiles?; and (3) what is the optimal time for postprandial glucose measurement rated according to clinical outcome? Methods: We included 53 pregnant women in our study. Based on the criteria of the German Diabetes Association (fasting, 5.0 mmol/L; 1-h, 10.0 mmol/L; 2-h, 8.6 mmol/L) we included 13 women with gestational diabetes, four with type 1 diabetes and 36 non-diabetic pregnant (NDP) women. Gestational and type 1 diabetics were classed as one group: pregnancy complicated by diabetes (PCD). Patients with carbohydrate intolerance underwent dietary counseling in accordance with the recommendations of the American Diabetes Association. Patients received a CGMS(R) for use over 72 h. This was calibrated seven, times a day with an Accu-Check(R). The pre- and postprandial glucose levels were documented at 15-min intervals for 3 h from the beginning of each meal. The postprandial data from the three meals were added. The group was divided according to three clinical outcome parameters: mode of delivery, birth weight percentile, and diabetes-associated complications. Results: Statistically significant differences between groups were found for body mass index, fetal birth weight and oral glucose tolerance test. No significant differences were found for age, parity and gestational age, mode of delivery, and diabetes-associated complications. The sensor provided similar numbers of measurements in both groups (278 +/- 43 vs. 298 +/- 73, P=0.507). The postprandial glucose peak was reached after 82 +/- 18 min in the non-diabetics vs. 74 +/- 23 min in the PCD group (not significant). Postprandial glucose values were normally slightly higher in PCD (not significant). We added the postprandial glucose values at each time interval for the three meals for each day. For the sum, there was a significant difference between the measurements at 120 min and at 135 min postprandial (P<0.05). Dividing the group by clinical outcome showed a significant difference between the postprandial time intervals of 75 min and 105 min (P<0.05). In addition, the time interval was different from 60 min to 135 min for the mode of delivery and birth weight percentile (P<0.05). Conclusion: The 120-min interval is too long and has a lower correlation to clinical outcome parameters than earlier measurements. Our findings show that the optimal time for testing is between 45 and 120 min postprandial. Based on our practical experience and dietary recommendations, we would prefer a 60-min interval, because patients can calculate this more easily and can have more freedom to eat the recommended number of snacks.

Bullock, K. (2003). "Healthy family systems: The changing role of grandparents in rural areas." Gerontologist 43: 487-487.
	
Bulpett, C. (2002). "Regimes of Exclusion." European Urban and Regional Studies 9(2): 137-149.
	The concept of welfare regimes has a long pedigree inspired by the work of Gosta Esping-Andersen. This article seeks to examine the exclusionary effects of contrasting systems of welfare as manifested within two of Esping-Andersen's regime categories, the conservative regime of Germany and the liberal regime of the UK. Using a case-study approach, empirical research has centred on social housing provision in the northern German city of Hamburg and the southern English city of Southampton. These case-studies demonstrate how different regimes produce different variants of social policy despite very similar objectives. The resulting manifestations of exclusion reflect the ideology of the underlying systems as Esping-Andersen's categories have indicated. The aim of this paper is therefore to examine the manifestations of exclusion as operationalized by contrasting welfare regimes. These exclusionary tendencies are placed within the ideological discourse of citizenship as currently illustrated by the contrasting states, while the continuing relevance of Esping-Andersen's regime categories are reexamined.

Bunin, G. R., M. E. Gyllstrom, et al. (2001). "Recall of diet during a past pregnancy."  154(12): 1136-1142.
	The authors conducted a study of women's ability to recall diet during a past pregnancy. For a prospective study, women, completed self-administered food frequency questionnaires (FFQs) before and during pregnancy (1989-1992),. These women, mostly White and; well-educated, were contacted 3-7 years later (1996-1997) for a retrospective dietary assessment performed: by either telephone interview (n = 154) or self-administered FFQ (n = 115). Energy-adjusted Pearson correlations ranged from 0.10 to 0.49 for the telephone interview group and from 0.02 to 0.67 for the self-administered questionnaire group. When participants' intakes were ranked, quintile agreement (within one quintile) between original diet and recalled diet ranged from 60% to 69% in the telephone interview group and from 69% to 79% in the self-administered questionnaire group. Correlations and percentages of agreement were higher among women who used the same questionnaire for both dietary assessments than among those who used different questionnaires. These results suggest that diet during pregnancy is recalled with similar accuracy as or perhaps slightly lower accuracy than adult diet generally. This may reflect, in part, the influence of current (nonpregnancy) diet on recall of past (pregnancy) diet. While the results of this study may not, be generalizable to those obtained from other populations, to the authors' knowledge it is the first study of recall, of diet during pregnancy.

Burgess, A., S. Ruxton, et al. (1996). Men and their children : proposals for public policy. London, Institute for Public Policy Research.
	
Burnett (1979). Plenty of want, a social history of diet in England from 1815 to the present day. London, Scolar Press.
	
Burns, M. (2003). "Interviewing: embodied communication." Feminism & Psychology 13(2): 229-236.
	
Burrows, A., S. Johnson, et al. (2004). ""Does my bump look big in this?" The meaning of bodily changes for first-time mothers-to-be." Journal of Health Psychology 9(3): 361-374.
	Research on the impact of bodily changes during the transition to motherhood is contradictory. The aim of the study reported here was to provide more useful insights by employing an inductive qualitative approach. Interviews with six women in the latter stages of pregnancy were analysed drawing upon aspects of interpretative phenomenological analysis and Foucauldian discourse analysis. These analyses suggest generally negative consequence, and discursive constructions that have a greater potential to be limiting than empowering. The impact of gender ideologies on women's ways of being while pregnant is highlighted, as is the importance of developing alternative representations of the female, and the pregnant body, which do not pathologize women. (Original abstract)

Burrus, V. (2000). Begotten, not made : conceiving manhood in late antiquity. Stanford, Calif. ; Cambridge, Stanford University Press : Cambridge University Press.
	
Buttriss, J., S. Stanner, et al. (2004). "Successful ways to modify food choice: lessons from the literature." Nutrition Bulletin 29(4): 333-43.
	Effecting positive dietary change is one of the major health challenges facing the government and health professionals and is likely to be influenced by an understanding of the factors that shape food choice. On behalf of the Food Standards Agency, the British Nutrition Foundation recently completed an in-depth, critical review of the factors that influence food choice, attempting to identify effective mechanisms and highlight existing gaps in the evidence base. This article provides a summary of the findings and recommendations of that review.

Byng-Hall, J. (2002). "Relieving parentified children's burdens in families with insecure attachment patterns." Family Process 41(3): 375-388.
	In this article, I will explore how parentfication, in which children take on parental roles, develops within the context of insecure attachments. I argue that parentification is more prevalent than is generally supposed. Adaptive parentfication is differentiated from destructive parentification, which is associated with a range of childhood problems. In this article, attachment theory is placed within a family systems framework and family concepts are described, such as a secure family base and family scripts, which can help to understand parentification. The ways in which two attachment relationships-insecure/ambivalent and insecure/controlling- contribute to parentification processes are delineated. Transgenerational patterns are discussed. Family therapy can provide a preventive intervention aimed at reducing current parentification and interrupting transgenerational transmission. A central aim is to reduce the need for a parent to turn to a child for care. To this end, work can be done to resolve conflicts between parents' thus freeing them to provide sufficient mutual support to each other. Children need to be detriangulated from the parental relationship. Working with transgenerational patterns, including work with grandparents, is recommended. Therapy with a family with a preschool child illustrates these issues as well as the prevention of the establishment of destructive parentification

Callen, J. and J. Pinelli (2004). "Incidence and duration of breastfeeding for term infants in Canada, United States, Europe, and Australia: A literature review." Birth-Issues in Perinatal Care 31(4): 285-292.
	
Campbell, H. and I. Jones (1996). "Promoting breastfeeding: A view of the current position and a proposed agenda for action in Scotland."  18(4): 406-414.
	The prevalence of breastfeeding in Scotland is the second lowest in Europe. There is good evidence that breastfeeding results in decreased gastrointestinal, and to a lesser extent respiratory infections, in the first year of life, and reduced serious infections in low-birthweight babies. Published evidence for the effectiveness of interventions which seek to promote successful breastfeeding within populations is scanty and of poor quality, although numerous studies have highlighted hospital practices which discourage and undermine breastfeeding. Changing these poor practices has been shown to be achievable and can lead to improved breastfeeding rates. Experience in other industrialized countries such as Canada, Australia and Norway has shown that substantial increases in breastfeeding are achievable through combined government and health service action over a period of one or two decades. We recommend a combination of government and health service action to promote breastfeeding in Scotland including: implementation of the international Code on Marketing of Breastmilk Substitutes: reviews of health professional basic and in-service training in breastfeeding management, maternity leave and allowances, and workplace facilities for breastfeeding mothers; promotion of the 'Baby Friendly Initiative'; development of community support for breastfeeding mothers; routine collection of breastfeeding data to support annual monitoring of breastfeeding rates: and support for research on the effectiveness of strategies which seek to promote breastfeeding.

Campbell, K. R. M., David Crawford PhD, Michelle Jackson PhD, Karen Cashel RD MPH, Anthony Worsley PhD, Kay Gibbons RD and Leann L Birch PhD (2002). "Family food environments of 5-6-year-old-children: Does socioeconomic status make a difference?" Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition 11(Supplement): 553.
	The environment in which a child learns to eat is complex and differs across SES. This study highlights a number of differences in aspects of a child's family food environment that are likely to impact on a child's dietary patterns and thus risk for nutrition related disease. Consideration of the opportunities for the modelling of healthy eating, the use of takeaway meals, and the differences in reported food availability, affordability and quality, provide important examples of areas that need to be considered in the design of nutrition promotion strategies targeting families and their children.

Campbell, M. W. C., J. Williams, et al. (2006). "Maternal concern and perceptions of overweight in Australian preschool-aged children." Medical Journal of Australia 184(6): 274-277.
	Objective: To assess maternal concern about overweight in Australian preschool-aged children and factors predicting maternal concern about children's current and future weight status. Design: Cross-sectional survey of child's body mass index and parent questionnaire. Setting: Metropolitan Melbourne, Victoria, 2002. Participants: A community-based cohort of 324 4-year-old children and their parents. Main outcome measures: Mothers' reports of concern about the child's current and future weight status, and perceptions of the child's weight, diet and activity relative to their peers were compared with the child's measured weight status, and parent and child characteristics. Results: The prevalence of overweight orobesity was 19%, but only 5% of mothers indicated concern about their child being currently overweight, while 16% worried their child would become overweight. Over 70% of mothers of overweight children saw them as being of similar weight to their peers. Most mothers saw their children as being equally or more active than other children and having a diet at least as healthy as their peers. Overweight daughters were more likely to elicit maternal concern about current weight than overweight sons (relative risk, 4.6; 95% CI, 1.1-19.8). Mothers were more likely to worry about their child's potential for future overweight if they or the child's father were overweight. Conclusions: Despite mounting public concern about childhood obesity in Australia, most mothers surveyed were not concerned about their child's weight, and many mothers did not perceive their overweight children as different from their peers. This may have implications for interventions that rely on acknowledgement of child overweight as a first step to change.

Cantrill, R. M., D. K. Creedy, et al. (2003). "An Australian study of midwives' breast-feeding knowledge." Midwifery 19(4): 310-317.
	
Caplan, P. (1997). Food, health and identity. London ; New York, Routledge.
	
Caplan, P., Ed. (1997). Food, Health and Identity London, Routledge.
	
Caplan, P., A. Keane, et al. (1998). Studying food choice in its social and cultural contexts: approaches from a social anthropological perspective. The Nation's Diet. The Social Science of Food Choice. A. Murcott. Essex, Pearson Education: 168-182.
	
Caraher, M., Dixon, P., Lang, T. & Carr-Hill, R. (1999). "The state of cooking in England: the relationship of cooking to food choice.'" British Food Journal 101(8): 590 - 609.
	
Caraher, M., P. Dixon, et al. (1999). "The state of cooking in England: the relationship of cooking skills to food choice." British Food Journal 101(8): 590-609.
	
Carbonell, X., F. Botet, et al. (1998). "The incidence of breastfeeding in our environment."  26(4): 320-324.
	Aims: To establish the incidence of breastfeeding and its persistence after three and six months; to identify the factors which might modify attitudes towards breastfeeding. Methods: An interview, administered to mothers of term born infants of adequate weight for gestational age, after a delivery of one sole foetus, between 1st March and 31st May 1997. Mothers were asked about: previous pregnancies, children and type of feeding; during this pregnancy, their intentions regarding feeding; supervision of pregnancy, and the information received regarding breastfeeding; their work situation, and educational level. Questions regarding the neonatal period referred to the kind of lactation initiated, information received, and the use of a pacifier and supplements. A two-part poll was conducted by telephone after 3 months and after 6 months, enquiring about what kind of feeding was used, the reason for change (if any), who had provided information regarding the change, degree of satisfaction, and work situation. Three hundred and twenty-nine polls were completed, accounting for 70% of the births. Results: During pregnancy 91% of mothers had intended to breastfeed, and this Figure was maintained at birth. A trend towards breastfeeding was observed: 74% of those who had fed earlier children artificially started breastfeeding this time, compared with 7% of mothers who changed from breastfeeding to artificial feeding. After three months, 57% of mothers continued to breastfeed their child, and 24% after six months. High educational level exerted a positive influence on the duration of breastfeeding (OR = 1.7; p = 0.03) and the giving of supplements had a negative effect (OR = 0.4; p = 0.04). The fact that mothers work outside the home did not modify the duration of breastfeeding. Conclusions: The rate of breastfeeding is high (91%). Among mothers with previous children, there is a greater trend to change from artificial feeding to breastfeeding (74% vs 7%; p < 0.002). The mother's educational level is the most important positive factor, and the early giving of supplements the most important negative factor.

Carfoot, S., P. Williamson, et al. (2005). "A randomised controlled trial in the north of England examining the effects of skin-to-skin care on breast feeding." Midwifery 21(1): 71-79.
	
Carnell, S., C. Edwards, et al. (X2005). "Parental perceptions of overweight in 3-5 y olds." International Journal of Obesity. Vol. 29(4): 353-355.
	OBJECTIVE: To assess the accuracy of parents' perceptions of their 3 to 5 y old children's weight status in a large UK sample. METHOD: Parental perception and concern about child weight, demographic variables, and children's height and weight were obtained for 564 parent-child dyads. RESULTS: Only 1.9% of parents of overweight children and 17.1% of parents of obese children described their child as overweight. The odds of parents perceiving the child as overweight were increased for overweight (2.7; 95% CI 0.4, 16.5) and obese (28.5; 7.1, 115.4) compared with normal weight children, but were not associated with parental weight or with any demographic factors. Although few parents perceived their overweight children as overweight, more (66.2%) expressed concern about their overweight child becoming overweight in the future. Odds of concern were progressively higher for overweight (2.5; 1.6, 3.9) and obese children (4.6; 2.2, 9.7), and were also higher for parents who were themselves overweight (1.9; 1.2, 2.9) or obese (2.5; 1.3, 4.8). CONCLUSION: These findings suggest that parents of 3-5 y olds show poor awareness of their child's current weight status. Reframing discussions in terms of preventing future overweight may be an effective way to engage parents. copyright 2005 Nature Publishing Group All rights reserved.

Carr, J. (1983). UK market for women's monthly magazines, Centre for Business Research.
	
Carruth, B. R., J. Skinner, et al. (1998). "The phenomenon of "picky eater": A behavioral marker in eating patterns of toddlers."  17(2): 180-186.
	Objective: To determine if toddlers who were considered "picky eaters" had lower dietary scores than non-picky eaters, and if family environment and socioeconomic status were significantly related to picky eater status and dietary scores. Methods: An incomplete block design provided two interviews at randomly assigned times (24, 28, 32, or 36 months) of Caucasian mothers from upper socioeconomic (n = 74) and lower socioeconomic status (n = 44). Using trained interviewers, 6 days of food intake, two administrations of a questionnaire about toddler's eating behavior, and one administration of the Family Environment Scales were collected in the home. MANOVA, discriminant function analysis, and logistic regression procedures were used to determine significant differences between picky and non-picky eater groups. Results: Picky eaters had lower dietary variety (p = .03) and diversity scores (p = .009) than non-picky eaters. Mothers of picky eaters compared to those of non-picky eaters used persuasion (p = .0001) and ranked their child's eating behaviors as more problematic (p = .0001). Conclusion: Toddlers perceived by their mothers as picky eaters had significantly lower dietary variety and diversity scores. Parents need information and strategies to increase the number of foods acceptable to their toddlers and to develop a sound feeding plan.

Carruth, B. R. and J. D. Skinner (2000). "Revisiting the picky eater phenomenon: Neophobic behaviors of young children."  19(6): 771-780.
	Objectives: To compare picky eater behaviors (food neophobia) elf children as toddlers and at 42 to 84 months of age and to assess their mothers' neophobic behaviors. Methods: In a follow-up study of toddlers' picky eater behaviors, trained interviewers conducted four in-home interviews with mothers (n = 71) when their children were 42, 60, 72 and 84 months of age. Mothers reported children's diets (1 weekend day and 2 week days, 12 days total) and their behaviors; weight and height were measured. An additional interview at 48 months involved only mothers' behaviors. Nutritionist IV software, correlations, t tests and repeated measures ANOVA were used to determine nutrient intake, behavioral relationships and differences by picky eater status. Mothers' descriptions of the children's food neophobia and bothersome behaviors were analyzed by qualitative methods. Results: Mothers reported children's neophobic behaviors at all ages. Mothers' and children's behaviors were significantly and consistently correlated for number of attempts before deciding an unfamiliar food was disliked (p < 0.01) and trying unfamiliar foods away from home (p < 0.01). Other behavioral associations were significantly related for some ages but not for all the children's ages. There were no significant differences by picky eater status for nutrient intake or height and weight at any age. Mothers most frequently attempted unfamiliar entrees away from home because of social setting/relationships. About 20% of mothers attempted unfamiliar foods or new recipes just because they were different. Conclusions: Findings suggest that some neophobic behaviors of children did not improve with maturity. Mothers' perceptions about their children's picky eater status were inconsistent over time.

Carruth, B. R. and J. D. Skinner (2001). "Mothers' sources of information about feeding their children ages 2 months to 54 months."  33(3): 143-147.
	The purpose of this study was to determine sources and types of information about child feeding practices that were received by 62 mothers with children aged 1 to 54 mont hs. Each mother participated in 10 or 11 in-home interviews. Data analysts included chi-square testing for differences in information sources over time and content analyses to develop information themes. As sources, citations for professionals and magazines decreased, with no significant charters for relatives over time. After 24 months. newspapers, television. and friends were reported more frequently than earlier. Mothers reported multiple and concurrent information sources over time. Thus, nutrition educators have concurrent and multiple opportunities to disseminate nutrition information.

Carruth, B. R. and J. D. Skinner (2002). "Feeding Behaviors and other motor development in healthy children (2-24 months)."  21(2): 88-96.
	Objectives: To monitor infant's gross, fine and oral motor development patterns related to feeding. Design: An incomplete block design was used with 57 to 60 (sample = 98) mothers interviewed when their children were 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16 and 24 months (within +/- 5 days of birth date). Each mother had 5 to 6 interviews. Setting: Selected developmental feeding behaviors were monitored using in-home interviews conducted by trained interviewers (n = 2). At each interview, mothers reported the child's age when behaviors first occurred, and anthropometric measurements were performed. Subjects: Subjects were healthy white children who lived mostly in homes with educated two-parent families of upper socioeconomic status. Results: Mean behavioral ages were within normal ranges reported in the literature, whereas individuals exhibited a wide diversity in reported ages. Examples of gross motor skills (age in months, +/- SD) included sitting without help (5.50 +/- 2.08) and crawling (8.00 +/- 1.55). Mean ages for self-feeding fine motor skills showed children reaching for a spoon when hungry (5.47 +/- 1.44), using fingers to rake food toward self (8.87 +/- 2.58) and using fingers to self-feed soft foods ( 13.52 +/- 2.83). Oral behaviors included children opening their mouth when food approached (4.46 +/- 1.37), eating food with tiny lumps (8.70 +/- 2.03) and chewing and swallowing firmer foods without choking (12.17 +/- 2.29). Conclusions: Mean ages for feeding behaviors occurred within expected age ranges associated with normal development. However, mothers reported that individual children exhibited a wide age range for achieving these behaviors. Our results should be considered in counseling mothers about infant feeding practices.

Carruth, B. R., P. J. Ziegler, et al. (2004). "Prevalence of picky eaters among,Infants and toddlers and their caregivers' decisions about offering a new food."  104(1): S57-S64.
	Objectives To determine the prevalence of infants and toddlers who were considered picky eaters, the predictors of picky eater status and its association with energy and nutrient intakes, food group use, and the number, of times that caregivers offered a new food before deciding their child disliked it. Design Cross-sectional survey of households with infants and toddlers (ages four to 24 months) was conducted. Subjects/Setting National random sample of 3,022 infants and toddlers. Methods Data included caregiver's socioeconomic and demographic information, infants' and toddlers' food intake (24-hour recall), ethnicity, and caregivers' reports of specified times that new foods were offered before deciding the child disliked it. Statistical Analyses For picky and nonpicky eaters, t tests were used to determine significant mean differences in energy and nutrient intakes. Logistic regression was used to predict picky eater status, and chi(2) tests were used for differences in the specified number of times that new foods were offered. Results The percentage of children identified as picky eaters by their caregivers increased from 19% to 50% from four to 24 months. Picky eaters were reported at all ages for both sexes, all ethnicities, and all ranges of household incomes. On a day, both picky and nonpicky eaters met or exceeded current age-appropriate energy and dietary recommendations. Older children were more likely to be picky. Those in the higher weight-for-age percentiles were less likely to be picky. The highest number of times that caregivers offered a new food before deciding the child disliked it was three to five. Applications/Conclusions Dietetics professionals need to be aware that caregivers who perceive their child as a picky eater are evident across gender, ethnicity, and household incomes. When offering a new food, mothers need to provide many more repeated exposures (eg, eight to 15 times) to enhance acceptance of that food than they currently do.

Carvel, J. (2006, 22 April 2006). "Child obesity has doubled in a decade." The Guardian  Retrieved 25 April 2006, 2006, from http://www.guardian.co.uk/food/Story/0,,1758945,00.html.
	
Cathro, J. (1991). Men: Food for Thought? The male influence on shopping and food choice. Leatherhead, Information Group Services (Market Intelligence Section).
	
Chabrol, H., V. Walburg, et al. (2004). "Influence of mother's perceptions on the choice to breastfeed or bottle-feed: perceptions and feeding choice."  22(3): 189-198.
	The aim of the study was to evaluate what perceptions predicted feeding choice. A questionnaire assessing the degree of agreement with statements about the advantages and disadvantages of breastfeeding or bottle-feeding was developed from analysis of qualitative interviews. Two hundred and twenty-five mothers completed this questionnaire after delivery and indicated the feeding method they chose. Exploratory factorial analyses extracted 10 factors, which were entered in regression analyses predicting the choice of a feeding method. Three factors were significant predictors of the choice of the feeding method : 'breastfeeding physiological advantages for mothers', 'fear of dependency' and 'moral reasoning'. The former factor was the only factor that positively predicted breastfeeding, whereas the latter two positively predicted bottle-feeding. Possible implications to education and prevention are discussed.

Chalmers, I. (2005). "If Evidence-Informed Policy Works in Practice, Does It Matter If It Doesn't Work in Theory?"
	Professionals & policy makers sometimes do more harm than good when they intervene in the lives of other people. This should prompt humility & efforts to ensure that policies & practices are informed by rigorous, transparent, up-to-date evaluations of relevant empirical evidence. Systematic reviews of relevant evidence must be designed to minimise the likelihood of confusing the effects of interventions with the effects of biases & chance. Systematic reviews are essential, although insufficient, for informing policies & practice. Critiques of this approach based solely on theory are unhelpful in efforts to protect the public from harmful & useless interventions. 1 Figure, 39 References. Adapted from the source document.

Chamberlayne, P. (2004). "Emotional Retreat and Social Exclusion: Towards Biographical Methods in Professional Training."
	This article argues the relevance of biographical case study methods as a tool for professional practice. The case of Laura, manager of a small hostel for homeless people, shows hidden reserves of emotional understanding that Laura finds too risky to bring into play. Analysis of the structure of the interview shows the enactment & lowering of Laura's defenses in interaction with the interviewer. The article argues for support & supervision to allow professionals to recognize & use their capacities for emotional thinking, & that this kind of "experiential truth" is key both for users & professionals in tackling social exclusion. Methodological parallels between biographical methods & effective training are also drawn through discussion of responses to a training video based on a fictionalized version of a critical incident from this interview. 30 References. Adapted from the source document.

Charles, N. and M. Kerr (1986). "Eating Properly, the Family and State Benefit." Sociology 20(3): 412-429.
	In this paper we explore the relations between `proper' eating and the family. In particular we are concerned to analyse the attitudes towards food and eating that are expressed by women who are dependent on the state for their basic needs, and the way in which these attitudes relate to food practices within their households. We demonstrate that families living on state benefit find it difficult to eat `properly'; that is, they are unable to consume `proper meals' (consisting of meat or fish, potatoes and vegetables) regularly and a Sunday dinner once a week. Attempts to maintain these standards of proper eating have consequences in terms of the food consumption of all family members. This is explored in relation to single parent and two parent unemployed families and it is shown that the presence of a male partner has an impact on the diet of all members of the family.

Charles, N. and M. Kerr (1986). "Food for Feminist Thought." The Sociological Review 34(3): 537-571.
	
Charles, N. and M. Kerr (1986). Issues of responsibility and control in the feeding of families. The Politics of Health Education: Raising the Issues. S. Rodmell and A. Watt. London, Routledge: 57-75.
	
Charles, N. and M. Kerr (1987). Just the way it is: Gender and age differences in family food consumption. Give and Take in Families: Studies in resource distribution. J. Brannen and G. Wilson. London, Allen and Unwin.
	
Charles, N. and M. Kerr (1988). Women, food and families. Manchester, Manchester University Press.
	
Charsley, S. R. (1992). Wedding cakes and cultural history. London ; New York, Routledge.
	
Chase, S. E. (2005). Narrative Inquiry: Multiple Lenses, Approaches, Voices. The Sage Handbook if Qualitative Research. N. K. Denzin and Y. S. Lincoln. California; London; New Dehli, Sage.
	
Chen, M. Y., K. James, et al. (2005). "Health-related behavior and adolescent mothers."  22(4): 280-288.
	Objective: To explore health-related behaviors among adolescent mothers living in the rural area of Taoyuan, Taiwan. Design: A cross-sectional descriptive design and nonrandom survey method were used. Sample: The sample consisted of 37 adolescent mothers, identified by public health nurses. Measurements: Standardized interview and Adolescent Health Promotion (AHP) questionnaire. Results: Findings revealed a pattern of economic disadvantage. Nearly half of the participants still lived with their biological parents. Two-thirds needed economic support from their parents (generally coming from their biological mother). Thirty-five percent of participants reported never using contraceptives, two-thirds had never had a Pap smear, and 44% did not breast-feed their infants. Nearly 60% of the children were cared for by the biological mothers of the participants. Adolescent mothers with high school education, and who were employed, married, and received parental economic support had better health-related behaviors than adolescent mothers without these characteristics. Conclusions: Although the study sample has geographic limitations, future international studies with similar populations of adolescent mothers in rural settings will help public health nurses understand adolescent mothers' stressors and needs which in turn affect their health-related behaviors. Intervention strategies are needed to encourage behaviors to keep this population healthy.

Cherrier, H. (2005). Using Existential-Phenomenological Interviewing to Explore Meanings of Consumption. The Ethical Consumer. R. Harrison, T. Newholm and D. Shaw. London, Sage: 125-135.
	
Chezem, J., C. Friesen, et al. (2003). "Breastfeeding knowledge, breastfeeding confidence, and infant feeding plans: Effects on actual feeding practices." Jognn-Journal of Obstetric Gynecologic and Neonatal Nursing 32(1): 40-47.
	
Chumbler, N. R., J. Fortney, et al. (2004). "Sense of Coherence and Mental Health Service Utilization: The Case of Family Caregivers of Community-Dwelling Cognitively-Impaired Seniors."
	The purpose of the present study is to investigate whether family caregivers with a stronger sense of coherence (SOC) who are caring for community dwelling older adults with cognitive impairment are less likely to use mental health services. An adaptation of the Anderson behavioral model of access to health care was employed as a conceptual framework. Data were collected for 304 impaired older adult/family caregiver dyads. Caregiver mental health service use & sense of coherence were measures as well as predisposing factors (age, gender race, education, type of familial relationship, family size, & co-residence with impaired family member), enabling factors (self-reported awareness of services, travel times to mental health services, social support, & insurance), & need factors (chronic health conditions & distress). The impaired elder's age, level of physical impairment, & level of memory impairment were also examined. Logistic regression results indicated that caregivers who have a stronger SOC were less likely to use mental health services (OR = 0.91, p = 0.006). Other significant independent predictors of mental health service use were social support (OR = 0.34, p = 0.032) & caregivers aiding family members with higher levels of physical impairment (OR = 1.14, p = 0.033). The results of this study support clinicians & planners developing mental health services that use SOC to mitigate the detrimental effects of caregiving. Future research is needed to target effective measures to positively manipulate this variable. 2 Tables, 28 References. [Copyright 2004 Elsevier Ltd.].

Churchill, W. (1940). "The Few." The Fifties Web  Retrieved 28 March, 2006, from http://www.fiftiesweb.com/usa/winston-churchill-so-few.htm.
	
Chye, J. K., Z. Zain, et al. (1997). "Breastfeeding at 6 weeks and predictive factors."  43(5): 287-292.
	Despite the numerous changes made in accordance with the Baby Friendly Hospital Initiative at the University Hospital, Kuala Lumpur, the low rates of breastfeeding have persisted. This study aims to examine the current trend in infant feeding, and the influences of some perinatal and sociodemographic factors on breastfeeding. Five-hundred mothers with singleton pregnancies and healthy infants were interviewed at 6 weeks post-partum. Only 124 (25 per cent) mothers were practising exclusive breastfeeding (EBF), and 132 (26 per cent) mothers were using exclusive infant formula feeding (EIF). On logistic regression analyses, mothers who followed EBF were more likely to have had antenatal. plans to breastfeed (Odds ratio 2.44, 95 per cent confidence interval 1.75-3.45), not in paid employment post-natally (OR 1.76, 95 per cent CI 1.31-2.36), of older age group (>27 years) (OR 1.48, 95 per cent CI 1.13-1.93), had female infants (OR 1.38, 95 per cent CI 1.05-1.80) and of Indian ethnicity (compared to Chinese) (OR 3.87, 95 per cent CI 2.16-6.89). Breastfeeding difficulties were associated with decreased odds of EBF (OR 0.21, 95 per cent CI 0.13-0.34), Parental education, fathers' ages and incomes, primigravida status, Caesarean section, present of episiotomy, late first breastfeed, phototherapy, and length of hospital stay were not significant predictors of failure of EBF. In comparison, predictive factors for increased use of EIF were mothers who have had breastfeeding difficulties, less than or equal to 9 years of schooling, and of Chinese descent. In conclusions, the overall rate of EBF by 6 weeks of age in infants born in this urban hospital had remained poor, The adverse factors for EBF identified in this study warrant further in-depth studies to determine effective ways of improving EBF rates.

Clark, R. (2002). "Marked men: white masculinity in crisis." JOURNAL OF GENDER STUDIES 11(3): 297-298.
	
Clarke, I., A. Hallsworth, et al. (2006). "Retail restructuring and consumer choice 1. Long-term local changes in consumer behaviour: Portsmouth, 1980-2002." Environment and Planning A 38(1): 25-46.
	Over the last two decades fundamental changes have taken place in the global supply and local structure of provision of British food retailing. Consumer lifestyles have also changed markedly. Despite some important studies of local interactions between new retail developments and consumers, we argue in this paper that there is a critical need to gauge the cumulative effects of these changes on consumer behaviour over longer periods. In this, the first of two papers, we present the main findings of a study of the effects of long-term retail change on consumers at the local level. We provide in this paper an overview of the changing geography of retail provision and patterns of consumption at the local level. We contextualise the Portsmouth study area as a locality that typifies national changes in retail provision and consumer lifestyles; outline the main findings of two large-scale surveys of food shopping behaviour carried out in 1980 and 2002; and reveal the impacts of retail restructuring on consumer behaviour. We focus in particular on choice between stores at the local level and end by problematising our understanding of how consumers experience choice, emphasising the need for qualitative research. This issue is then dealt with in our complementary second paper, which explores choice within stores and how this relates to the broader spatial context.

Clatterbaugh, K. (2004). "brother's keeper: What the social sciences do (and don't) tell us about masculinity." Contemporary Pscyhology - APA Review of Books 49(4): 448-450.
	
Clendinning, A. (1998). "Gas and Water Feminism: Maud Adeline Brereton and Edwardian Domestic Technology." Canadian Journal of History 33(1): 1-24.
	In 1911, a group of British gas managers made advertising history by establishing a collective organization dedicated to the promotion of a single industry. The British Commercial Gas Association (BCGA) directed its campaigns at various consumer groups, including builders, architects, and tenants. To present the "woman's point of view" to their female customers, the BCGA executive hired Maud Adeline Claudesley Brereton as editor-in-chief of its monthly publicity magazines. A former teacher turned domestic science specialist, Brereton decided to work for the private sector, the gas industry, because it offered a practical solution to housing problems. In this respect, Brereton combined business with social reform. Maud Adeline Brereton anticipated that gas technology, in the form of cookers, water boilers, and gas fires, had the potential to raise housing and nutrition standards for all classes. Within the context of public debates over racial deterioration and eugenics, Brereton promoted ameliorative technology to improve the health of the population. Moreover, she maintained that technology made possible a "domestic revolution" by significantly reducing the time and effort that women, as both servants and housewives, expended on housework. Time saved on housekeeping might be directed to more profitable and gratifying pursuits, including paid employment or voluntary service, extending women's influence beyond the private sphere. Given her preoccupation with public health and domestic architecture, Brereton continued the work of an earlier generation of Victorian feminist designers. As an Edwardian, she was not alone in this crusade, and interwar women's groups renewed calls for affordable labor-saving domestic technology. However, Brereton stands out among her contemporaries because she chose to work not through political organizations, but in the corporate sector in an age when few women held positions of influence in the predominantly male business world.

Clifton, K. (2004). "Mobility strategies and food shopping for low-income families - A case   study." Journal of Planning Education and Research 23(4): 402-413.
	
Cloherty, M., J. Alexander, et al. (2004). "Supplementing breast-fed babies in the UK to protect their mothers from tiredness or distress." Midwifery 20(2): 194-204.
	
Cloherty, M., J. Alexander, et al. (2005). "The cup-versus-bottle debate: A theme from an ethnographic study of the supplementation of breastfed infants in hospital in the United Kingdom."  21(2): 151-162.
	This article reports 1 theme from an ethnographic Study that aimed to describe the experiences. expectations, and beliefs of mothers and health care professionals concerning supplementation in a UK maternity unit. Observation was conducted on the postnatal ward and the newborn infant unit, and 30 mothers, 17 midwives, 4 neonatal nurses, 3 health care assistants, 3 senior house officers, and 3 senior pediatricians gave in-depth interviews during a 9-month period in 2002. One of the major themes that emerged was the cup-versus-bottle debate. There were 3 categories strongly linked to this theme: difficulties returning to the breast, ease Of use, and necessary skills and knowledge. It appears there is an urgent need to determine which is the best method of giving supplementary feeds, so that full, accurate information can be given to mothers. appropriate policies be devised, and the necessary resources and staff training be provided.

Coakley, A. (2003). "Food or ‘virtual’ food? The construction of children’s food in a global economy." International Journal of Consumer Studies 27(4): 335–340.
	This paper explores the pattern of change and development in the marketization and reconstitution of food products for children. It is in the past few decades that global corporations’ search for new markets has come to focus intensely on children. In the eyes of global corporations, children are a huge, multibillion dollar market. Childhood may be understood as a social construction but its form is historically specific. At present, the market is defining and reconstituting cultural meanings of childhood without being contested by other significant groups in society. The paper goes on to explore how transnational corporations have transformed the production and marketing of food. The paper discusses the food risks and the challenges faced by the fast food industry which specifically targets children. The reconstitution and the rebranding of popular children’s food is producing ‘virtual’ food rather than real food. We live in an era where childhood offers untold opportunities in the northern hemisphere. However, the global market has come to dominate and define the social construction of childhood. Other cultural forms of identity outside of consumerism are not making the same impression. The food risks associated with the global processing of food and the health risks that have been linked to these new food forms ultimately has consequences not only for children but for society as a whole.

Coates, J. (2003). Men talk : stories in the making of masculinities. Oxford, UK, Blackwell Pub.
	
Cockburn, C. (1997). "Domestic Technologies: Cinderella and the Engineers." Women's Studies International Forum 20(3): 361-371.
	
Cohen, D. (1990). Being a man. London, Routledge.
	
Cohen, M. (1996). Fashioning masculinity : national identity and language in the eighteenth century. London ; New York, Routledge.
	
Cohen, R. J., L. L. Rivera, et al. (1995). "Delaying the Introduction of Complementary Food until 6 Months Does Not Affect Appetite or Mothers Report of Food Acceptance of Breast-Fed Infants from 6 to 12 Months in a Low-Income, Honduran Population."  125(11): 2787-2792.
	Low income, primiparous mothers who had exclusively breast-fed for 4 mo were randomly assigned to one of three groups: I) continued exclusive breast-feeding to 6 mo (EBF), 2) introduction of complementary foods at 4 mo, with ad libitum nursing 4-6 mo (SF), and 3) introduction of complementary foods at 4 mo, with maintenance of base-line nursing frequency 4-6 mo (SF-M). After the intervention phase (4-6 mo; n = 141), home visits were conducted for a subsample at 9 (n = 60) and 12 (n = 123) mo. At each visit, an observer recorded infant food intake at the midday meal and interviewed the mother regarding usual feeding patterns and the infant's acceptance of 20 common food items. All but two infants (1.5%) were breast-fed to 9 mo and all but eight (6%) to 12 mo. There were no significant differences among groups in breast-feeding frequency, amount or number of foods consumed at the midday meal, percentage of food offered that was consumed, usual daily number of meals and snacks,number of food groups consumed, or overall food acceptance score. Frequency of consumption of foods from eight different food groups (dairy, meats, eggs, grains, beans, fruits, vegetables, tubers) was not significantly different among groups except that, at 9 mo only, the SF group (but not the SF-M group) consumed more vegetables than did the EBF group. These results indicate that delaying the introduction of complementary foods until 6 mo does not adversely affect appetite or food acceptance among breast-fed infants.

Coles, R. L. "The Parenting Roles and Goals of Single Black Full-Time Fathers."
	African American fathers' definition of important parenting roles, behavioral objectives for their children, & use of sources of parenting support are studied. Data collected through in-depth interviews with single & married African American fathers (N = 10) & quantitative questionnaires were analyzed. Several findings are reported: (1) participants identified the most important parenting roles as "provider" & "nurturer," & the least important ones as "friend," "authority figure," & "disciplinarian." (2) Gender & behavioral problems played a somewhat significant role in rearranging participants' ordering of parental roles. (3) Fathers' principal parenting objectives were to instill senses of independence & self-reliance in their children. (4) Participants were hesitant to utilize support groups & parenting literature & most frequently turned to their own mothers to receive parenting support. It is concluded that the participants' parenting objectives & concerns are relatively indistinct from other groups of parents. 3 Tables, 82 References. J. W. Parker.

Coley, R. L. (2001). "(In)visible men - Emerging research on low-income, unmarried, and minority fathers." American Psychologist 56(9): 743-753.
	The author aims to help make low-income, unmarried, and minority fathers more visible by reviewing the emerging literature base on this population and addressing important conceptual, methodological, and policy issues. Recent evidence is reviewed concerning patterns of fatherhood, factors that support or prohibit fathers' active involvement with their children, and the impact of paternal involvement on children's development. To move the field forward, advances are needed in methodology (increased use of father reports, multiple methods, and longitudinal studies), measurement (greater diversity and depth, multiple reporters), and theoretical and conceptual definitions (family systems perspectives, new and inclusive definitions of fatherhood). In particular, a multidisciplinary and contextualized perspective is an imperative aid to significantly, increase understanding of the lives and impact of low-income, unmarried, and minority fathers

Collins, M. (1999). "The Pornography of Permissiveness: Men's Sexuality and Women's Emancipation in Mid Twentieth-Century Britain." History Workshop Journal(47): 99-120.
	The period 1964-72 saw the launching of a number of explicitly pornographic magazines in Britain, and the history of the era cannot be written with the pornography left out. From the alibi material of the 1950's, the new permissiveness of the 1960's led to the "pubic wars" of the 1970's, which made soft-core erotica much less soft than before. The pornographers' task was facilitated by the attitude of the intelligentsia, which gave it a patina of respectability, and sales suddenly ballooned. Pornographers, catering as they continued to do to all manner of male anxieties and fears, recognized feminists as their natural enemies well before any feminist did the reverse. After a brief imaginative flowering in the 1960's, the magazines went back to their old misogynistic trough in the 1970's.

Collins, S. B. "Vulnerability and Assets in Urban Poverty: Bringing Together Participatory Methods and a Sustainable Livelihoods Framework."
	The central aim of this study is to contribute to a fuller understanding of poverty by bringing together an analysis of the structural and institutional contexts in which poverty exists with an understanding of the everyday livelihood strategies used by households who are poor. This study goes beyond conventional income poverty measures by bringing together a sustainable livelihoods framework and participatory poverty assessment methods. Both of these approaches, primarily used in non-Western rural and urban settings, have been applied in a Canadian urban setting with low income households who use the emergency services of Project SHARE in Niagara Falls, Ontario. The sustainable livelihoods framework pays particular attention to structural and institutional issues which impact on livelihoods, drawing on the concepts of assets and vulnerability. The importance of assets in the lives of households is explored through in-depth structured interviews with 44 households who use Project SHARE's services. Assets are defined broadly to include household relations, health education, labour (including income), housing (including durable goods) and social networks. The extent of commoditization of public services and the coping strategies pursued by households are also examined. Participatory methods in the study of poverty invite those living in difficult circumstances to participate in an analysis of their own livelihood situation. A participatory poverty assessment has been facilitated with a small group of women who are members of the food co-op at Project SHARE. The Participatory Poverty Assessment explores issues of well-being, assets, the role of institutions, coping strategies and a community action plan. The contribution of both the exploration of assets and the Participatory Poverty Assessment are brought together in a discussion of livelihoods including issues of well-being, gender, social solidarity, capabilities and functionings, and the power of institutions. The combination of a sustainable livelihoods framework and a participatory poverty assessment has demonstrated the importance of non-material needs, uncovered unmet needs, demonstrated the importance of social relationships in sustaining livelihoods, added to an understanding of poverty as an inseparable interaction between means and ends, and demonstrated how the institution of welfare administration shapes and constrains the possibilities for livelihood well-being.

Communities., C. o. t. E. and E. Network on other Measures to Reconcile, Family, Responsibilities, Childcare (1994). Men as carers : towards a culture of responsibility, sharing and reciprocity between women and men in the care and upbringing of children : report of an international seminar Ravenna, Italy May 21-22 1993. London, European Commission Network on Childcare and other Measures to Reconcile Employment and Family Responsibilities.
	
Connell, C. L., K. L. Lofton, et al. (2005). "Children's experiences of food insecurity can assist in understanding its effect on their well-being." Journal of Nutrition 135(7): 1683-1690.
	An understanding of the experience of food insecurity by children is essential for better measurement and assessment of its effect on children's nutritional, physical, and mental health. Our qualitative study explored children's perceptions of household food insecurity to identify these perceptions and to use them to establish components of children's food insecurity experience. Children (n = 32; 11-16 y old) from after school programs and a middle school in low-income areas participated in individual semistructured in-depth interviews. Children as young as 11 y could describe behaviors associated with food insecurity if they had experienced it directly or indirectly. Using the constant comparative method of qualitative data analysis, children's descriptions of behaviors associated with food insecurity were categorized into components of quantity of food, quality of food, psychological aspects, and social aspects described in the household food insecurity literature. Aspects of quantity included eating less than usual and eating more or eating fast when food was available. Aspects of quality included use of a few kinds of low-cost foods. Psychological aspects included worry/anxiety/sadness about the family food supply, feelings of having no choice in the foods eaten, shame/fear of being labeled as poor, and attempts to shield children. Social aspects of food insecurity centered on using social networks to acquire food or money and social exclusion. These results provide valuable information in understanding the effect of food insecurity on children's well-being especially relative to the social and emotional aspects of well-being. 

Connell, R. and J. Messerschmidt (2005). "Hegemonic masculinity - Rethinking the concept." GENDER & SOCIETY 19(6): 829-859.
	The concept of hegemonic masculinity has influenced gender studies across many academic fields but has also attracted serious criticism. The authors trace the origin of the concept in a convergence of ideas in the early 1980s and map the ways it was applied when research on men and masculinities expanded. Evaluating the principal criticisms, the authors defend the underlying concept of masculinity; which in most research use is neither reified nor essentialist. However the criticism of trait models of gender and rigid typologies is sound. The treatment of the subject in research on hegemonic masculinity can be improved with the aid of recent psychological models, although limits to discursive flexibility must be recognized. The concept of hegemonic masculinity does not equate to a model of social reproduction; we need to recognize social struggles in which subordinated masculinities influence dominant forms. Finally, the authors review what has been confirmed from early formulations (the idea of multiple masculinities, the concept of hegemony, and the emphasis on change) and what needs to be discarded (one-dimensional treatment of hierarchy and trait conceptions of gender). The authors suggest reformulation of the concept in four areas: a more complex model of gender hierarchy emphasizing the agency of women; explicit recognition of the geography of masculinities, emphasizing the interplay among local, regional, and global levels; a more specific treatment of embodiment in contexts of privilege and power; and a stronger emphasis on the dynamics of hegemonic masculinity, recognizing internal contradictions and the possibilities of movement toward gender democracy.

Conradson, D. (2003). "Spaces of Care in the City: The Place of a Community Drop-In Centre."
	This paper explores the ways in which drop-in centers may at times function as spaces of care in the city. Drawing on participant observation research in a particular center in Bristol, England, it focuses on social relations in the drop-in space & the various subjectivities that were observed to emerge in this relational environment. Through a consideration of individuals who appeared to be positively assisted by their involvement in the drop-in, a sense is developed of the different ways in which such agencies may function as spaces of care. Use is made of Carl Rogers's notion of the core conditions for successful therapeutic encounter, as developed within the person-centered school of humanistic psychotherapy, to explicate these positive experiences. At the same time it was clear that some individuals found the drop-in to be a less than comfortable or even exclusionary environment. The paper concludes by reflecting on the broader significance of drop-in centers as caring environments & on the value of humanistic conceptions of therapeutic relation for interpreting organizational spacings of subjectivity. 1 Figure, 81 References. Adapted from the source document.

Conway, R., S. Reddy, et al. (1999). "Dietary restraint and weight gain during pregnancy."  53(11): 849-853.
	Objectives: To explore dietary intake and weight gain during pregnancy in relation to dietary restraint. Design: Longitudinal prospective study. Attitudes to weight gain during pregnancy were assessed using self-administered questionnaires and dietary intake by 7-d weighed diet records in early and late pregnancy. Setting: South West London 1995 - 1996. Subjects: 74 Caucasian pregnant women expecting their first or second baby were recruited through a London hospital and data from 62 women were analysed. Results: Restrained eaters were significantly less likely to experience weight gains within the recommended range for their pre-pregnancy body mass index (BMI) (P = 0.026). They gained either more or less weight than recommended. Conclusions: Dietary restraint appears to have undesirable influences on eating and weight gain during pregnancy which require further attention. Sponsorship: South Bank University and Cow and Gate Nutricia Ltd. provided financial assistance for this project. Descriptors: dietary restraint; pregnancy; weight gain; slimming.

Cook, C. J. (1999). "Patterns of weaning and adult response to stress."  67(5): 803-808.
	Early environmental effects including variation in maternal care? can modify hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis function. One of the more overt early effects, involving maternal care, is weaning restraint. In this study the effects of different patterns of weaning, in the rat (Rattus norvegicus), on both adult response to restraint stress and to dexamethasone administration were examined. Animals that as pups experienced a gradual lengthening time of separation from the mother, between 21 and 30 days of postnatal age (completely separated on 30 days), showed lower levels of systemic corticosterone and glutamate in the sensory cortex in response to restraint stress than seen in other groups. These animals also showed greater suppression of corticosterone by dexamethasone than did animals abruptly removed from the mother at 21 days of age. Animals left in the cage with the mother until either 30 or 40 days of age showed the greatest levels of corticosterone and glutamate in the sensory cortex in response to the stress and the least suppression by dexamethasone. These results suggest that changes in maternal contact at time of weaning can influence adult responsiveness to stress. (C) 1999 Elsevier Science Inc.

Cook, W. L. (2001). "Interpersonal influence in family systems: A social relations model analysis." Child Development 72(4): 1179-1197.
	Is parental control of a child's behavior due to the parenting style of the parent (e.g., authoritative parenting), the child's inclination toward compliance (i.e., an "easy" child), or the reciprocal system of parent-child exchange? This study addressed this question, as well as the broader one of who drives the interaction whenever one family member influences another. Family members from 208 two-parent two-child families of adolescents rated the degree to which each person in the family influenced each of the other family members. Social relations analysis of these data indicated that characteristics of the partner and the unique actor-partner "fit" were systematic sources of interpersonal influence, and that reciprocal influence was present in most-but not all-family dyads. A pattern in which parents compensate for each other's influenceability was also found. It is recommended that these findings be replicated using observational data that have been sequentially analyzed

Cooke, L. J., J. Wardle, et al. (2004). "Demographic, familial and trait predictors of fruit and vegetable consumption by pre-school children." Public Health Nutrition 7(2): 295-302.
	
Copperman, N. (2004). "Heightening awareness about soft drink consumption." Journal of the American Dietetic Association 104(8): 1249-1250.
	
Coren, C. (2003). "Clinician support may play a role in mothers' decision to continue breast-feeding." Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health 35(6): 278-279.
	
Cornwall, A. and N. Lindisfarne (1994). Dislocating masculinity : comparative ethnographies. London, Routledge.
	
Costa, D. L. (2004). "Race and pregnancy outcomes in the twentieth century: A long-term comparison." Journal of Economic History 64(4): 1056-1086.
	
Counihan, C. and S. L. Kaplan (1998). Food and gender : identity and power. Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Harwood Academic Publishers.
	
Counihan, C. and P. Van Esterik (1997). Food and culture : a reader. New York ; London, Routledge.
	
Coveney, J. (2000). Food, Morals and Meaning: the pleasure and anxiety of eating. London, Routledge.
	
Coveney, J. (2005). "A qualitative study exploring socio-economic differences in parental lay knowledge of food and health: Implications for public health nutrition." Public Health Nutrition 8(3): 290-297.
	Background: The role played by lay knowledge in understanding health inequalities has received increased interest recently. Very little is known, however, about how lay knowledge of food and health varies across social class. The present exploratory study compared and contrasted ways in which people from different social backgrounds draw on and use different forms of lay knowledge about food and health. Method: Parents from 40 families were recruited from two socio-economically different suburbs (20 families from each suburb). In-depth interviews were conducted with the mother and father in each family to examine lay knowledge about food and health. All interviews were transcribed and coded for specific themes. Responses from each suburb were compared and contrasted. Results: Different forms of lay knowledge about food and health were noted, especially concerning children's eating habits. Parents in the high-income suburb were more likely to discuss food and health in technical terms informed by contemporary nutritional or medical priorities. Parents in the low-income suburb did not share this discourse, but instead were more likely to discuss food in terms related to children's outward appearance or functional capacity. Conclusions and implications: The research highlights differences in lay knowledge about food and health across social class. It emphasises the need for public health nutrition policy-makers and practitioners to pay attention to lay knowledge on its own terms, rather than attempting to educate from predetermined assumptions, principles and standards. copyright The Author 2004.

Coveney, J. (2005). "A qualitative study exploring socio-economic differences in parental lay knowledge of food and health: implications for public health nutrition."  8(3): 290-297.
	Background: The role played by lay knowledge in understanding health inequalities has received increased interest recently. Very little is known, however, about how lay knowledge of food and health varies across social class. The present exploratory study compared and contrasted ways in which people from different social backgrounds draw on and use different forms of lay knowledge about food and health. Method: Parents from 40 families were recruited from two socio-economically different suburbs (20 families from each suburb). In-depth interviews were conducted with the mother and father in each family to examine lay knowledge about food and health. All interviews were transcribed and coded for specific themes. Responses from each suburb were compared and contrasted. Results: Different forms of lay knowledge about food and health were noted, especially concerning children's eating habits. Parents in the high-income suburb were more likely to discuss food and health in technical terms informed by contemporary nutritional or medical priorities. Parents in the low-income suburb did not share this discourse, but instead were more likely to discuss food in terms related to children's outward appearance or functional capacity. Conclusions and implications: The research highlights differences in lay knowledge about food and health across social class. It emphasises the need for public health nutrition policy-makers and practitioners to pay attention to lay knowledge on its own terms, rather than attempting to educate from predetermined assumptions, principles and standards.

Coveney, J. (2005). "A qualitative study exploring socio-economic differences in parental lay knowledge of food and health: implications for public health nutrition." PUBLIC HEALTH NUTRITION 8(3): 290-297.
	BACKGROUND: The role played by lay knowledge in understanding health inequalities has received increased interest recently. Very little is known, however, about how lay knowledge of food and health varies across social class. The present exploratory study compared and contrasted ways in which people from different social backgrounds draw on and use different forms of lay knowledge about food and health. METHOD: Parents from 40 families were recruited from two socio-economically different suburbs (20 families from each suburb). In-depth interviews were conducted with the mother and father in each family to examine lay knowledge about food and health. All interviews were transcribed and coded for specific themes. Responses from each suburb were compared and contrasted. RESULTS: Different forms of lay knowledge about food and health were noted, especially concerning children's eating habits. Parents in the high-income suburb were more likely to discuss food and health in technical terms informed by contemporary nutritional or medical priorities. Parents in the low-income suburb did not share this discourse, but instead were more likely to discuss food in terms related to children's outward appearance or functional capacity. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: The research highlights differences in lay knowledge about food and health across social class. It emphasises the need for public health nutrition policy-makers and practitioners to pay attention to lay knowledge on its own terms, rather than attempting to educate from predetermined assumptions, principles and standards.

Coveney, J. and I. ebrary (2000). Food, morals and meaning : the pleasure and anxiety of eating. London ; New York, Routledge.
	
Cowan, P. A. and C. P. Cowan (2002). "Interventions as tests of family systems theories: Marital and family relationships in children's development and psychopathology." Development and Psychopathology 14(4): 731-759.
	This paper addresses the role of family-based studies of preventive and therapeutic interventions in our understanding of normal development and psychopathology. The emphasis is on interventions designed to improve parent-child and/or marital relationships as a way of facilitating development and reducing psychopathology in children and adolescents. Intervention designs provide the gold standard for testing causal hypotheses. We begin by discussing the complexity of validating these hypotheses and the implications of the shift from it traditional emphasis on theories of etiology to developmental psychopathology's newer paradigm describing risks --> pathways --> outcomes. We summarize correlational studies that document the fact that difficult and ineffective parent-child and marital relationships function as risk factors for children's cognitive, social, and emotional problems in childhood and adolescence. We then review prevention studies and therapy evaluation studies that establish some specific parenting and marital variables as causal risk factors with respect to these Outcomes. Our discussion focuses on what intervention studies have revealed so far and suggests an agenda for further research

Cowdery, R. S. and C. Knudson-Martin. (2005). "The Construction of Motherhood: Tasks, Relational Connection, and Gender Equality."
	This qualitative analysis of 50 couples explored how gender equality is related to the construction of motherhood in their day-to-day interactions. Results identified two models of mothering: (a) mothering as a gendered talent & (b) mothering as conscious collaboration. The first model perpetuated gender inequality through a recursive task-relationship cycle between mothers & children. More equal couples consciously collaborated to create a task-relationship spiral for fathers as well as mothers. Processes involved in each view of mothering were discussed relative to the distribution of parenting tasks. The findings suggest that families would benefit from education & clinical approaches that address gender & power, encourage open discussion regarding how child care choices are made, & develop new skills for both genders. 1 Table, 2 Figures, 40 References. Adapted from the source document.

Craig, S. (1992). Men, masculinity, and the media. Newbury Park, Calif. ; London, Sage Publications.
	
Crampton, R. (2006). Beta Male. The Times. London.
	
Crang, P., C. Dwyer, et al. (2003). "Transnationalism and the spaces of commodity culture." Progress in Physical Geography 27(4): 438-456.
	This paper presents a critical assessment of the concept of transnationalism and its place within the current refiguration of cultural geography. Identifying three specific concerns with current theorizations of transnationalism (regarding the concept's scope, specificity and politics), the paper discusses the widely perceived need to 'ground' the study of transnationalism in specific empirical research. It argues that this discussion has been unhelpfully dominated by an overemphasis on identifying transnational migrant and diasporic communities. The paper highlights the authors' research with a range of food and fashion firms working between Britain and the Indian subcontinent to argue that an analysis of commodity culture provides an alternative way of advancing our understanding of contemporary transnationality. This approach suggests that transnational space can be recognized as both multidimensional and multiply inhabited. The paper concludes by outlining the alternative ways in which attention to commodity culture helps 'ground' the concept of transnationalism.

Cricco-Lizza, R. (2005). "The milk of human kindness: Environmental and human interactions in a WIC clinic that influence infant-feeding decisions of Black women." Qualitative Health Research 15(4): 525-538.
	
Cullen, K., Baranowski, T, Rittenberry, L, Olvera, N (2000). "Social-environmental influences on children's diets: results from focus groups with African-, Euro- and Mexican-American children and their parents." HEALTH EDUCATION RESEARCH 15(5): 581-590.
	
Cummins, S. a. M., S. (2002). "'"Food Deserts" - evidence and assumption In health policy making,." British Medical Journal 325:(436-8).
	
Curtin, D. and L. Heldke, Eds. (1992). Cooking, Eating, Thinking: Transformative Philosophies of Food. Bllomington, Indiana, Indiana University Press.
	
Cutting, T. M., J. O. Fisher, et al. (1999). "Like mother, like daughter: familial patterns of overweight are mediated by mothers' dietary disinhibition." American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 69: 608-613.
	
Dachner, N. and V. Tarasuk. "Homeless squeegee kids: food insecurity and daily survival."
	Current knowledge about food insecurity in North America is largely based on research with low-income households. Much less is known about the food experiences of homeless people, a group who are particularly vulnerable to food insecurity. This study explored the food experiences of street youth, one of the fastest growing segments of the homeless population in Canada. To gain an in-depth understanding of food insecurity within the context of daily life, ethnographic research was undertaken with street youth at one inner-city drop-in centre in Toronto, Canada. Results of this study reveal that street youth's access to food was precarious amidst the instability and chaos of street life. The day-to-day lives of the street youth encountered in this study were characterized by a constant struggle to find safe, secure shelter, generate income, and obtain sufficient food. In this context, food was a precious commodity. Food access was inextricably linked to and contingent upon conditions of health, shelter, and income. Food access was precarious since everyday food sources purchased food and charitable food assistance were ultimately insecure. Squeegeeing (washing car windows), the primary source of income for youth in the study, was dependent on the weather, political and public will, and youth's physical health, and thus did not generate enough money to continuously meet basic food needs. Charitable food assistance was considered poor quality and was associated with food sickness. The often unsavoury atmosphere of charitable food programmes, their locations, capacity, and idiosyncratic rules, policies, and hours of operation also affected access. Findings from this study extend the current understanding of food insecurity to homeless youth and offer insight into current responses to hunger and homelessness.

Dachner, N. and V. Tarasuk (2002). "Homeless squeegee kids: food insecurity and daily survival." Social science & medicine 54(7): 1039-49.
	Current knowledge about food insecurity in North America is largely based on research with low-income households. Much less is known about the food experiences of homeless people, a group who are particularly vulnerable to food insecurity. This study explored the food experiences of street youth, one of the fastest growing segments of the homeless population in Canada. To gain an in-depth understanding of food insecurity within the context of daily life, ethnographic research was undertaken with street youth at one inner-city drop-in centre in Toronto, Canada. Results of this study reveal that street youth's access to food was precarious amidst the instability and chaos of street life. The day-to-day lives of the street youth encountered in this study were characterized by a constant struggle to find safe, secure shelter, generate income, and obtain sufficient food. In this context, food was a precious commodity. Food access was inextricably linked to and contingent upon conditions of health, shelter, and income. Food access was precarious since everyday food sources purchased food and charitable food assistance were ultimately insecure. Squeegeeing (washing car windows), the primary source of income for youth in the study, was dependent on the weather, political and public will, and youth's physical health, and thus did not generate enough money to continuously meet basic food needs. Charitable food assistance was considered poor quality and was associated with food sickness. The often unsavoury atmosphere of charitable food programmes, their locations, capacity, and idiosyncratic rules, policies, and hours of operation also affected access. Findings from this study extend the current understanding of food insecurity to homeless youth and offer insight into current responses to hunger and homelessness.

Damato, E. G., D. A. Dowling, et al. (2005). "Duration of breast feeding for mothers of twins." Jognn-Journal of Obstetric Gynecologic and Neonatal Nursing 34(2): 201-209.
	
Damato, E. G., D. A. Dowling, et al. (2005). "Explanation for cessation of breastfeeding in mothers of twins." Journal of Human Lactation 21(3): 296-304.
	
Damon-Moore, H. (1994). Magazines for the millions : gender and commerce in the Ladies' home journal and the Saturday evening post, 1880-1910. Albany, State University of New York Press.
	
Dancyger, I. (1978). A world of women : an illustrated history of women's magazines. Dublin, Gill and Macmillan.
	
Daniels, S. R. (2006). "The consequences of childhood overweight and obesity." Future of Children 16(1): 47-67.
	Researchers are only gradually becoming aware of the gravity of the risk that overweight and obesity pose for children's health. In this article Stephen Daniels documents the heavy toll that the obesity epidemic is taking on the health of the nation's children. He discusses both the immediate risks associated with childhood obesity and the longer-term risk that obese children and adolescents will become obese adults and suffer other health problems as a result. Daniels notes that many obesity-related health conditions once thought applicable only to adults are now being seen in children and with increasing frequency. Examples include high blood pressure, early symptoms of hardening of the arteries, type 2 diabetes, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, polycystic ovary disorder, and disordered breathing during sleep. He systematically surveys the body's systems, showing how obesity in adulthood can damage each and how childhood obesity exacerbates the damage. He explains that obesity can harm the cardiovascular system and that being overweight during childhood can accelerate the development of heart disease. The processes that lead to a heart attack or stroke start in childhood and often take decades to progress to the point of overt disease. Obesity in childhood, adolescence, and young adulthood may accelerate these processes. Daniels shows how much the same generalization applies to other obesity-related disorders-metabolic, digestive, respiratory, skeletal, and psychosocial-that are appearing in children either for the first time or with greater severity or prevalence. Daniels notes that the possibility has even been raised that the increasing prevalence and severity of childhood obesity may reverse the modern era's steady increase in life expectancy, with today's youth on average living less healthy and ultimately shorter lives than their parents-the first such reversal in lifespan in modern history. Such a possibility, he concludes, makes obesity in children an issue of utmost public health concern.

Daponte, B. O., A. Haviland, et al. "To What Degree Does Food Assistance Help Poor Households Acquire Enough Food? A Joint Examination of Public and Private Sources of Food Assistance."
	We study the efficacy of public & private food assistance in alleviating food shortages among poor households by jointly considering the effects of all major forms of domestic food assistance - the Food Stamp Program, WIC, & food pantries. The analyses are based on detailed data collected in 1993 from 398 low-income households in Allegheny County, PA. We examine the effect each of the widely available forms of food assistance has on helping poor households acquire enough resources potentially to meet basic nutritional requirements. Research findings suggest that compared with other forms of food assistance, the receipt of a significant amount in food stamps has a much greater impact on whether a household attains at least the Thrifty Food Plan than the receipt of food from a food pantry or through the WIC program. 3 Tables, 1 Appendix, 32 References. Adapted from the source document. COPIES ARE AVAILABLE FROM: HAWORTH DOCUMENT DELIVERY CENTER, The Haworth Press, Inc., 10 Alice Street, Binghamton, NY 13904-1580.

Darmon, N., J. Coupel, et al. "Dietary inadequacies observed in homeless men visiting an emergency night shelter in Paris."
	OBJECTIVE: To assess the dietary intake and the nutritional status of homeless men. SETTING: A night emergency shelter in Paris, France. DESIGN: Dietary survey (48-h) including alcohol intake and a questionnaire on age, duration of homelessness, smoking habits. Subjects were also weighed and measured. SUBJECTS: Ninety-seven men aged 18-72 years (mean 43.3), of whom 54% were homeless for more than 18 months, 82% were smokers and 53% were regular and/or excessive drinkers. RESULTS: The BMI distribution was shifted towards low values, the percentage of wasted persons being four times higher than in the reference population. The mean total energy intake was 2376 kcal and included a high and highly variable percentage of energy derived from alcohol (12.0% Among drinkers, the mean ethanol intake was 90 g and there was a significant negative correlation between ethanol and non-alcoholic energy intakes. The median intakes of potassium, calcium, zinc, vitamins B1, B2, and niacin were lower than European Population Reference Intakes but only the mean intake of vitamin B1 was significantly lower. Eighty percent of non-alcoholic energy was provided by charitable organisations. For most nutrients, the nutritional density of the shelter ration was not significantly different from the density of the foods purchased by the homeless. CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest that the content of some nutrients should be increased in existing food assistance programs for homeless people in France.

Darmon, N., J. Coupel, et al. "Dietary inadequacies observed in homeless men visiting an emergency night shelter in Paris."
	OBJECTIVE: To assess the dietary intake and the nutritional status of homeless men. SETTING: A night emergency shelter in Paris, France. DESIGN: Dietary survey (48-h) including alcohol intake and a questionnaire on age, duration of homelessness, smoking habits. Subjects were also weighed and measured. SUBJECTS: Ninety-seven men aged 18-72 years (mean 43.3), of whom 54% were homeless for more than 18 months, 82% were smokers and 53% were regular and/or excessive drinkers. RESULTS: The BMI distribution was shifted towards low values, the percentage of wasted persons being four times higher than in the reference population. The mean total energy intake was 2376 kcal and included a high and highly variable percentage of energy derived from alcohol (12.0% Among drinkers, the mean ethanol intake was 90 g and there was a significant negative correlation between ethanol and non-alcoholic energy intakes. The median intakes of potassium, calcium, zinc, vitamins B1, B2, and niacin were lower than European Population Reference Intakes but only the mean intake of vitamin B1 was significantly lower. Eighty percent of non-alcoholic energy was provided by charitable organisations. For most nutrients, the nutritional density of the shelter ration was not significantly different from the density of the foods purchased by the homeless. CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest that the content of some nutrients should be increased in existing food assistance programs for homeless people in France.

Daunton, M. and M. Hilton, Eds. (2001). The Politics of Consumption. Oxford, Berg.
	
Davies, P. T. (2002). "Conceptual links between Byng-Hall's theory of parentification and the emotional security hypothesis." Family Process 41(3): 551-555.
	Guided by our emotional security hypothesis, this commentary expands on Byng-Hall's article by addressing the role interparental difficulties play in the development of parentification. The implications that recent methodological advances have for empirically testing family models of insecurity are discussed

Davis, J. A. (1995). "Family Meals - a Thing of the Past."  73(4): 356-356.
	
Davison, K. K. and L. L. Birch (2001). "Weight status, parent reaction, and self-concept in five-year- old girls." Pediatrics 107(1): 46-53.
	Objective. This study examined the relationship between weight status and self-concept in a sample of preschool-aged girls and whether parental concern about child overweight or restriction of access to food are associated with negative self-evaluations among girls. Method. Participants were 197 5-year-old girls and their parents. Girls' weight status (weight for height percentile) was calculated based on height and weight measurements. Girls' self-concept was assessed using an individually administered questionnaire. Parents' concern about their child's weight status and restriction of their child's access to food were assessed using a self-report questionnaire. Results. Girls with higher weight status reported lower body esteem and lower perceived cognitive ability than did girls with lower weight status. Independent of girl's weight status, higher paternal concern about child overweight was associated with lower perceived physical ability among girls; higher maternal concern about child overweight was associated with lower perceived physical and cognitive ability among girls. Finally, higher maternal restriction of girls' access to foods was associated with lower perceived physical and cognitive ability among girls with higher weight status but not among girls with lower weight status. Conclusions. At least as early as age 5 years, lower self-concept is noted among girls with higher weight status. In addition, parents' concern about their child's weight status and restriction of access to food are associated with negative self-evaluations among girls. Public health programs that raise parental awareness of childhood overweight without also providing constructive and blame-free alternatives for addressing child weight problems may be detrimental to children's mental health.

Dawley, K. (2005). "Don't kill your baby: Public health and the decline of breast-feeding in the 19th and 20th centuries." Nursing History Review 13: 214-216.
	
De Bourdeaudhuij, I. and P. Van Oost "Family Members' Influence on Decision Making About Food: Differences in Perception and Relationship with Healthy Eating." American Journal of Health Promotion 13(2): 73-81.
	Purpose. This study provides insight into decision making about food choices in the family and its relationship with (un)healthy eating, by including the responses of four members of the family as a sampling unit. 
Setting. The study was conducted through four medical centers, visited by 69 classes from 19 different schools in Belgium.
Subjects. Ninety-two family quartets, including both parents and two adolescents between 12 and 18 years old, completed questionnaires independently.
Measures. Four previously investigated measures of decision-making power (30 items on a seven-point scale) were administered, along with a short food choice questionnaire and demographic variables.
Results. Results indicate that the influence of fathers but more especially that of children is important in food decisions. Moreover, the relative influence of each family member is dependent on the kind of product or product group considered. Differences in perceptions between the four family members show the importance of considering the responses of all the people involved in family decision making. Finally, it is clear that in families where adolescents have more power, food choices are less healthy.
Conclusions. Our main conclusion is the rejection of the "gatekeeper hypothesis" as an artifact of biased measurement. A multidimensional approach to the issue of influence in food decision making in the family is potentially richer and leads to different conclusions. The necessity of the involvement of the entire family for the introduction and adoption of healthy eating is emphasized.

De Bourdeaudhuij, I. and P. Van Oost (X1998). "Family members' influence on decision making about food: differences in perception and relationship with healthy eating." American Journal of Health Promotion 13(2): 73-81.
	Purpose. This study provides insight into decision making about food choices in the family and its relationship with (un)healthy eating, by including the responses of four members of the family as a sampling unit. Setting. The study was conducted through four medical centers, visited by 69 classes from 19 different schools in Belgium. Subjects. Ninety-two family quartets, including both parents and two adolescents between 12 and 18 years old, completed questionnaires independently. Measures. Four previously investigated measures of decision-making power (30 items on a seven-point scale) were administered, along with a short food choice questionnaire and demographic variables. Results. Results indicate that the influence of fathers but more especially that of children is important in food decisions. Moreover, the relative influence of each family member is dependent on the kind of product or product group considered. Differences in perceptions between the four family members show the importance of considering the responses of all the people involved in family decision making. Finally, it is clear that in families where adolescents have more power, food choices are less healthy. Conclusions. Our main conclusion is the rejection of the "gatekeeper hypothesis" as an artifact of biased measurement. A multidimensional approach to the issue of influence in food decision making in the family is potentially richer and leads to different conclusions. The necessity of the involvement of the entire family for the introduction and adoption of healthy eating is emphasized.

De Grazia, V. and E. Furlough (1996). The Sex of things : gender and consumption in historical perspective. Berkeley, University of California Press.
	
de Paoli, M. M., R. Manongi, et al. (2004). "Are infant feeding options that are recommended for mothers with HIV acceptable, feasible, affordable, sustainable and safe? Pregnant women's perspectives." Public Health Nutrition 7(5): 611-619.
	
Dear, M. J., P. Jackson, et al. (1987). "Cities, Consumption, Culture, and Postmodernism - Books in 1986." Environment and Planning D-Society & Space 5(4): 475-484.
	
Deblinger, E. and D. M. Hall (2000). "The case of Ryan: A child who suffered multiple episodes of sexual abuse." Cognitive and Behavioral Practice 7(3): 346-350.
	The case of Ryan presents the history of a 12-year-old male who was sexually abused on multiple occasions, first by his biological father at 6 years of age and later by a female cousin. The child, no longer in contact with his biological father, is accompanied to the initial assessment sessions by his biological mother and stepfather. Ryan reports symptoms of posttraumatic stress and depression, and he exhibits behavioral difficulties, including age-inappropriate sexual behaviors both at home and at school The response papers that follow this case presentation suggest assessment and treatment plans that reflect the diverse theoretical leanings of the respondents. These clinicians describe how they might design assessment and treatment plans that integrate cognitive-behavioral approaches with ideas and interventions derived from other theoretical orientations, including humanistic, family systems, and psychodynamic models

Delhaye, C. (2000). "De Geschiedenis Van De Consumptiecultuur En De Individualisering Van De Vrouwelijke Identiteit, Nederland, 1880-1920: Een Foucauldiaanse Benadering." Tijdschrift voor Sociale Geschiedenis 26(3): 263-288.
	Drawing on history, sociology, cultural studies, and women's studies, this article shows how developments in Western consumption culture fashioned female individualization, here approached from a Foucauldian perspective. The Western process of individualization is conceived of as a genealogy of technologies of individuality. Feminist scholars have criticized the mainstream debate on individualization for neglecting the history of women. In trying to determine a specific feminine logic of individualization, the article focuses on the history of consumption culture, especially on fashion discourse, and presents a critical reading of fashion discourse in two Dutch magazines appearing between 1880 and 1920. The analysis shows how these journals addressed women not only in terms of class or social position but foremost as individual "autonomous" subjects. Fashion discourse provided a language in which such notions as free choice, personal taste, and individual harmony were central categories.

Delight, E., J. Goodall, et al. (1991). "What Do Parents Expect Antenatally and Do Babies Teach Them."  66(11): 1309-1314.
	Antenatal inquiry of 658 parents in the North Staffordshire District Health Authority showed at least 13% to lack knowledge about a baby's potential for personal interaction when under 1 week old. Mothers and fathers varied significantly, independent of parity. Experienced parents expected later smiles. Two hundred and seventy eight of the same families were questioned three to four months after birth. Most parents had observed their baby's early responsiveness. Specific responses (looking, listening) were noted earlier when anticipated and looked for. Significant among postnatal non-responders was their antenatal selection of predominantly impersonal stimulation for a baby. The greatest degree of warmth noted in postnatal observations correlated notably with a father's antenatal interest and postnatal support from him and their friends, a mother's commitment to breast feeding and her knowledge that a very young baby can see, likes faces, and cries for emotional reasons. This highlights areas for antenatal tuition and postnatal encouragement, aiming to enhance warm early mutual regard between parents and child.

Delsing, M. J. M. H., J. H. L. Oud, et al. (2003). "Current and recollected perceptions of family relationships: The social relations model approach applied to members of three generations." Journal of Family Psychology 17(4): 445-459.
	Data from 81 three-generation families (comprising 567 participants) were analyzed to assess perceptions of current- family and family-of-origin relationships. The dimensions studied (Restrictiveness, Justice, Affection, and Trust) were derived from the family systems theories as developed by Boszormenyi-Nagy (I. Boszormenyi-Nagy & B. R. Krasner, 1986; L Boszormenyi-Nagy G. Spark, 1984; I. Boszormenyi-Nagy & D. N. Ulrich, 1981) and Stierlin (H. Stierlin, 1974, 1978; H. Stierlin, I. Rucker-Embden, N. Wetzel, & M. Wirsching, 1980). The social relations model (SRM) was used to disentangle the perception scores into characteristics of the perceiver (actor component), the target (partner component), and the family as a whole. For both current-family and family-of-origin relationships, significant variances of actor as well as family components were found. Empirical evidence for an association between current-family and (mother's) family-of-origin components was only found on the dimension of Restrictiveness. Clear differences were found between the means of current- family and family-of-origin perceptions, which could be explained by differences between current and past SRM components

Dennis, C. L. (2002). "Breastfeeding initiation and duration: A 1990-2000 literature review." Jognn-Journal of Obstetric Gynecologic and Neonatal Nursing 31(1): 12-32.
	
Dennis, C. L. (2002). "Breastfeeding peer support: Maternal and volunteer perceptions from a randomized controlled trial." Birth-Issues in Perinatal Care 29(3): 169-176.
	
Dennis, C. L., E. Hodnett, et al. (2002). "The effect of peer support on breast-feeding duration among primiparous women: a randomized controlled trial."  166(1): 21-28.
	Background: Most mothers stop breast-feeding before the recommended 6 months post partum. A systematic review showed that breast-feeding support programs by health care professionals did not substantially improve breast-feeding outcomes beyond 2 months post partum. We conducted a randomized controlled trial to evaluate the effect of peer (mother-to-mother) support on breast-feeding duration among first-time breast-feeding mothers. Methods: We recruited 256 breast-feeding mothers from 2 semi-urban community hospitals near Toronto and randomly assigned them to a control group (conventional care) or a peer support group (conventional care plus telephone-based support, initiated within 48 hours after hospital discharge, from a woman experienced with breast-feeding who attended a 2.5-hour orientation session), Follow-up of breast-feeding duration, maternal satisfaction with infant feeding method and perceptions of peer support received was conducted at 4, 8 and 12 weeks post partum. Results: Significantly more mothers in the peer support group than in the control group continued to breast-feed at 3 months post partum (81.1% v. 66.9%, p = 0.01) and did so exclusively (56.8% v. 40.3%, p = 0.01). Breast-feeding rates at 4, 8 and 12 weeks post partum were 92.4%, 84.8% and 81.1% respectively among the mothers in the peer support group, as compared with 83.9%, 75.0% and 66.9% among those in the control group (p less than or equal to 0.05 for all time periods). The corresponding relative risks were 1.10 (95% confidence interval [CI] 1.01-2.72) at 4 weeks, 1.13 (95% CI 1.00-1.28) at 8 weeks and 1.21 (95% Cl 1.04-1.41) at 12 weeks post partum. In addition, when asked for an overall rating of their feeding experience, significantly fewer mothers in the peer support group than in the control group were dissatisfied (1.5% v. 10.5%) (p = 0.02). Of the 130 mothers who evaluated the peer support intervention, 81.6% were satisfied with their peer volunteer experience and 100% felt that all new breast-feeding mothers should be offered this peer support intervention. Interpretation: The telephone-based peer support intervention was effective in maintaining breast-feeding to 3 months post partum and improving satisfaction with the infant feeding experience. The high satisfaction with and acceptance of the intervention indicates that breast-feeding peer support programs, in conjunction with professional health services, are effective.

Derrickson, J. P., C. Buchanan, et al. "Lessons learned from the Spend Less. Eat Well. Feel Better. program efficacy trial."
	Spend Less. Eat Well. Feel Better. (SLEWFB) is a 3-hour intervention designed to improve food resource management ability, health, and food security status. This program efficacy trial targeted clients seeking financial aid to prevent homelessness. A randomized controlled design using a 1-hour food safety intervention as a control group was used. Four variables were targeted over a 30-day time period: (1) food security status, (2) basic financial management, (3) average fruit and vegetable intake, and (4) goal accomplishment. Repeated-measures analysis of variance and chi-square analysis were used. Compared with control group participants (n = 47), SLEWFB graduates (n = 48) were less likely to have to choose between food and rent expenses (chi2 = 16.5, P =.00005) and improved their fruit and vegetable intake (F of time = 8.03, P [Lt].006) regardless of financial assistance received. The findings imply that further investigation of coupling financial aid with effective life skills education is warranted.

Derrickson, J. P., C. Buchanan, et al. "Lessons learned from the Spend Less. Eat Well. Feel Better. program efficacy trial."
	Spend Less. Eat Well. Feel Better. (SLEWFB) is a 3-hour intervention designed to improve food resource management ability, health, and food security status. This program efficacy trial targeted clients seeking financial aid to prevent homelessness. A randomized controlled design using a 1-hour food safety intervention as a control group was used. Four variables were targeted over a 30-day time period: (1) food security status, (2) basic financial management, (3) average fruit and vegetable intake, and (4) goal accomplishment. Repeated-measures analysis of variance and chi-square analysis were used. Compared with control group participants (n = 47), SLEWFB graduates (n = 48) were less likely to have to choose between food and rent expenses (chi2 = 16.5, P =.00005) and improved their fruit and vegetable intake (F of time = 8.03, P [Lt].006) regardless of financial assistance received. The findings imply that further investigation of coupling financial aid with effective life skills education is warranted.

Deutsch, J. (2005). "'Please Pass the Chicken Tits': Rethinking Men and Cooking at an Urban Firehouse." Food and Foodways 13: 91-114.
	
DeVault, M. (1991). Feeding the Family. Chicago, The University of Chigago Press.
	
DeVault, M. (1991). Feeding the Family: the Social Organization of Caring as Gendered Work. Chicago, University of Chicago Press.
	
DeVault, M. L. (1991). Feeding the family : the social organization of caring as gendered work. Chicago ; London, University of Chicago Press.
	
Devine, C. M., M. M. Connors, et al. (2003). "Sandwiching it in: spillover of work onto food choices and family roles in low- and moderate-income urban households." Social Science & Medicine 56(3): 617-630.
	Lower status jobs, high workloads and lack of control at work have been associated with less healthful diets, but the
ways through which workis connected to food choices are not well understood. This analysis was an examination of
workers’ experience of the relationship of their jobs to their food choices. Fifty-one multi-ethnic, urban, low- and
moderate-income adults living in Upstate New Yorkin 1995 participated in a qualitative interview study of fruit and
vegetable choices and discussed employment and food choices. The workers who participated in this study described a
dynamic relationship between workand food choices that they experienced in the context of their other roles and
values. These workers presented a relationship that was characterized by positive and negative spillover between their
jobs and their ability to fulfill family roles and promote personal health, linked by a spectrum of food choice strategies.
Participants’ narratives fit into three different domains: characterizations of workand their resources for food choice,
strategies used to manage food choices within the constraints of work, and affect related to the negative and positive
spillover of these strategies on family roles and on personal food choices. Characterizations of workas demanding and
limiting or demanding and manageable differentiated participants who experienced their food choice strategies as a
source of guilt and dissatisfaction (negative spillover) from those who experienced food choices as a source of pride and
satisfaction (positive spillover). Ideals and values related to food choice and health were balanced against other values
for family closeness and nurturing and personal achievement. Some participants found workunproblematic. These
findings direct attention to a broad conceptualization of the relationship of workto food choices in which the demands
and resources of the workrole are viewed as they spill over into the social and temporal context of other roles and
values. r 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Devine, C. M. and C. M. Olson (1992). "Womens Perceptions About the Way Social Roles Promote or Constrain Personal Nutrition Care."  19(1): 79-95.
	Research suggests that roles may affect women's health promoting behavior. This study was designed to discover, understand and develop hypotheses about the ways in which women's social roles influence their attitudes and beliefs about personal nutrition care. In-depth interviews were conducted with 36 married mothers, both employed and homemakers, at three different life stages. Interviews were analyzed using the constant comparative method of qualitative analysis. These data suggest that social roles influence women's attitudes about personal nutrition care in both positive and negative ways; this influence is modified by women's changing interpretations of their family roles at different life stages. The results have important implications for the prevention of chronic disease among women.

Devine, D. (2002). "Children's Citizenship and the structuring of adult-child relations in the primary school." Childhood 9(3): 303-320.
	
DfES (2005). Extended schools: Access to opportunities and services for all. DfES.
	
DfES, D. (2005). National Healthy Schools Status - A Guide for Schools. D. a. DOH.
	
DfES, D. a. (2005). Wired for Health.
	
Di Domenico, J. E. (2004). Advertising in Italian women's magazines 1915-1980 gender and evolving ideologies of the middle-class Italian women. Glasgow, University of Strathclyde
University of Strathclyde: 1 v.
	
Dickinson, R. A. and M. L. Carsky (2005). The Consumer as Economic Voter. The Ethical Consumer. R. Harrison, T. Newholm and D. Shaw. London, Sage: 25-36.
	
DiGirolamo, A. M., L. M. Grummer-Strawn, et al. (2003). "Do perceived attitudes of physicians and hospital staff affect breastfeeding decisions?" Birth-Issues in Perinatal Care 30(2): 94-100.
	
Ditch, J. and N. Oldfield (1999). "Social assistance: recent trends and themes." Journal of European Social Policy 9(1): 65-76.
	
Dittrich-Johansen, H. (1994). "Dal Privato Al Pubblico: Maternita E Lavoro Nelle Riviste Femminili Dell'epoca Fascista." Studi Storici 35(1): 207-243.
	The official discourse of the Fascist regime in Italy from the late 1920's was antifeminist and sometimes violently misogynist, based on the idea that the only roles for women were those of wives and mothers. In practice, however, women continued to work outside the home, ignoring the ideology of the regime. Women's magazines, written by Fascist women, contained both sets of attitudes, paying due service to official ideology but also justifying women's place in the workforce while denying any connection with pre-Fascist feminism.

Dix, D. N. (1991). "Why Women Decide Not to Breast-Feed."  18(4): 222-225.
	The reasons for the low frequency of breastfeeding at an urban medical center were evaluated in a study in which 81 women were interviewed concerning the factors affecting their choice of infant feeding method and attitudes toward breastfeeding. One-half of the women made their decision during pregnancy, and 41 percent did so before conception. They received information on infant feeding methods from health care providers, family, and friends. In addition to their own thoughts and feelings, family members had the most influence on the feeding method. The influence of health care providers was minimal, yet most women received early and comprehensive prenatal care. Although they thought that breastfeeding was better for the baby, the majority chose to bottle feed due to negative attitudes toward breastfeeding, conflicting responsibilities or schedules, convenience, negative breastfeeding experiences, and health or medical reasons.

Dixey, R. (1996). "Gender perspectives on food and cooking skills." British Food Journal 98(10): 35-41.
	
Dixey, R., P. Sahota, et al. (2001). "Children talking about healthy eating: data from focus groups with 300 9-11 year olds." Nutrition Bulletin 26: 71-79.
	
Dixon-Woods, M., C. Jackson, et al. (2006). "Receiving a summary of the results of a trial: qualitative study of participants' views."  332(7535): 206-209.
	Objective To explore trial participants' responses to receiving a summary of the results of a trial in pregnancy. Design Qualitative study with semistructured interviews. Participants 20 women who had when pregnant participated in the ORACLE trial of antibiotics for preterm labour and preterm rupture of the membranes and requested a copy of the trial results. Results Less than a fifth of women who participated in the ORACLE trial indicated that they wished to receive the trial results. Reactions to the leaflet summarising the trial results were generally positive or neutral, although some women had difficulty in understanding the leaflet, and there was evidence of possible negative implications for women who had adverse outcomes. Women requested the results because they were interested in being able to complete their own personal narrative. They wished to know to which arm of the trial they had been allocated and the implications for their own pregnancy, and they were disappointed with receiving a generic summary. Women's accounts indicated some confusion about the trial findings. Conclusions Recommendations that research participants be routinely provided with the results of studies have been made without the benefit of research to show the consequences of doing this or how it should best be managed. Caution is needed, as is more evaluation of how feedback of results should be handled, and assessment of the risks, benefits, and costs.

Djulus, J., M. Moretti, et al. (2005). "Marijuana use and breastfeeding." Canadian Family Physician 51: 349-350.
	
DOH. "School Fruit and Vegetable Scheme."
	
DOH (2003) 5 A DAY introduction.  Volume,  DOI: 
	
DoH. (2005). "Health Survey for England: Obesity among children under 11."   Retrieved June 2006, from http://www.dh.gov.uk/PublicationsAndStatistics/PublishedSurvey/HealthSurveyForEngland/HealthSurveyResults/fs/en.
	
Donath, S. M. and L. H. Amir (2000). "Does maternal obesity adversely affect breastfeeding initiation and duration?"  36(5): 482-486.
	Objective: To examine the relationship between maternal obesity and the initiation and duration of breastfeeding. Methods: Analysis was made of the 1995 National Health Survey, in which personal interviews were conducted on a multistage area sample of private dwellings and a list sample of non-private dwellings in all states and territories of Australia. Mothers between the ages of 17 and 50 years (n = 1991) with children under the age of 4 years in 1995 participated in the study. Results: Of the group of mothers with a body mass index (BMI) of 20-25, 89.2% (95% confidence interval (CI) 87.4-91.0) initiated breastfeeding, compared with 82.3% (95% CI 77.6-87.0) of mothers with a BMI of 30 or more. There was also a significant difference between the mean and median duration of breastfeeding of obese and non-obese mothers (BMI 30 and over, < 25, respectively). These differences remained significant when maternal smoking, age and other sociodemographic factors were taken into consideration. Conclusions: Health professionals should be aware that obese women may be at increased risk of not breastfeeding or stopping breastfeeding prematurely.

Donath, S. M. and L. H. Amir (2002). "The introduction of breast milk substitutes and solid foods: evidence from the 1995 National Health Survey." Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health 26(5): 481-484.
	
Donath, S. M. and L. H. Amir (2005). "Breastfeeding and the introduction of solids in Australian infants: data from the 2001 National Health Survey." Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health 29(2): 171-175.
	
Dorfman, C. (1992). "The Garden of Eating: the carnal kitchen in contemporary American culture." Feminist Issues 12.
	
Doughan, D. T. J. (1987). "Periodicals by, for, and About Women in Britain." Women's Studies International Forum 10(3): 261-273.
	Periodicals in general are an underrated resource for researchers, and this is especially true of women's periodicals. For present purposes these can be divided into three categories: commercial, organizational, and feminist. Commercial women's magazines first emerged at the turn of the 18th century and have been increasingly concerned with the domestication of women and with fashionable dress. They have come to be almost entirely controlled by advertising interests. Organizational periodicals frequently demonstrate a tension between the organization and the women within it, which tends to be resolved to the women's disadvantage. Feminist periodicals first began to appear in the mid-19th century and have since suffered various vicissitudes, but at present they appear to be flourishing as never before. The Fawcett Library has been stocking as many women's periodicals as it can, but runs into difficulties of space and categories. Although satisfactory lists of women's periodicals have been appearing, the important task of article indexing has scarcely begun.

Douglas, M. (1984). Food in the social order : studies of food and festivities in three American communities. New York, Russell Sage Foundation.
	
Douglas, M. (1984). Purity and danger : an analysis of the concepts of pollution and taboo. London, Ark Paperbacks.
	
Douglas, M. (1991 (1975)). Deciphering a Meal (1972). Implicit meanings : essays in anthropology. M. Douglas. London, Routledge: 249-275.
	
Douglas, M. and J. Gross (1981). "Food and culture : measuring the intricacy of rule systems." Social Science Information 20(1): 1-35.
	
Douglas, M. and M. Nicod (1974). "'Taking the biscuit': the structure of British Meal." New Society 30(637): 744-747.
	
Douglas, M. and M. Nicod (1974). "Taking the Biscuit: the Structure of British Meals." New Society 19: 744-747.
	
Dowler, E. "Food and Poverty in Britain: Rights and Responsibilities."
	Social policy & food/nutrition are both to some extent contested disciplines & areas for intervention. The role of food in poverty definition & measurement by experts & within the lived experience by those defined poor, has been a neglected component of disciplinary study & focused policy response in GB in the latter half of the 20th century. This paper explores the historical & contemporary complementarities & challenges, & examines some of the consequences poor people face because society has ignored the social aspects of nutritional needs & the nutritional contributions to poverty definition & interventions. Current policy initiatives in the health, food, & social sectors in GB are briefly reviewed & their potential shortcomings discussed. 82 References. Adapted from the source document.

Dowler, E. (2002). "Food and poverty in Britain: Rights and responsibilities." Social Policy & Administration 36(6): 698-717.
	Social policy and food/nutrition are both to some extent contested disciplines and areas for intervention. The role of food in poverty definition and measurement by experts and within the lived experience by those defined poor, has been a neglected component of disciplinary study and focused policy response in Britain in the latter hay of the twentieth century. This paper explores the historical and contemporary complementarities and challenges, and examines some of the consequences Poor People face because society has ignored the social aspects of nutritional needs, and the nutritional contributions to poverty definition and interventions. Current policy initiatives in the health, food and social sectors in Britain are briefly reviewed and their potential shortcomings discussed.

Dowler, E. (2002). "'Food and poverty in Britain: rights and responsibilities.'" Social Policy and Administration 36(6): 698 - 717.
	
Dowler, E. (2002). "Social inequalities, nutrition and inequalities in health." European Journal of Public Health 12(4): 24-24.
	
Dowler, E. and M. Caraher (2003). "Local food projects: The new philanthropy?" Political Quarterly 74(1): 57-65.
	
Dowler, E. and C. J. Finer (2002). "Special issue: Food - Introduction." Social Policy & Administration 36(6): 553-555.
	
Dowler, E., S. Turner, et al. (2001). Poverty Bites. London, CPAG.
	
Drewett, R. F., M. Kasese-Hara, et al. (2003). "Feeding behaviour in young children who fail to thrive." Appetite 40(1): 55-60.
	
Drewnowski, A. (2004). "Obesity and the food environment." American Journal of Preventive Medicine 27(3S): 154-162.
	
Driver, C. (1983). The British at Table, 1940-1980. London, Chatto and Windus/ The Hogarth Press.
	
Drucker, R. R., L. D. Hammer, et al. (X1999). "Can mothers influence their child's eating behavior?" Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics. 20(2): 88-92.
	This study examined the relationship between general maternal parenting style, maternal eating cues, and a child's eating behavior during mealtime. We expected that the general style would relate to the number of specific eating cues and that mothers who used more eating prompts would have children that ate more and at a faster rate. Seventy-seven children (39 girls, 38 boys), aged 3.5 years, visited the laboratory with their mothers for a videotaped lunch. Videotapes of each laboratory visit were coded for the child's eating rate and maternal parenting style, which was measured as the level of maternal control and support and the number and type of eating prompts given during a meal. Caloric intake was also calculated. The number and rate of verbal and physical encouragements and discouragements were significantly related to measures of general maternal parenting style and meal duration. The rates of food offers, food presentations, and total prompts were all significantly related to the child's rate of calorie intake. However, a mother's level of support or control was not related to the child's eating behavior. Although general maternal parenting style did not predict the child's eating behavior, these behaviors were related to the frequency of maternal eating prompts, which in turn were significantly related to the number of calories eaten and the time spent eating by the child. Children who ate the fastest had mothers who delivered eating prompts at a higher frequency. These findings may have implications for the development of obesity later in childhood, as a function of rapid eating or of poor self-regulation.

Du, M., Z. Bian, et al. (2000). "Caries patterns and their relationship to infant feeding and socio-economic status in 2-4-year-old Chinese children."  50(6): 385-389.
	Aims: To describe the prevalence, severity and patterns of caries in 2-4-year-old children and to evaluate the association between caries experience of the children and their feeding patterns and socio-economic background in terms of mothers' education and family income. Design: Cross-sectional survey. Setting: Suburban area of Hanchuan in Hubei province, China. Participants: A sample of 426 children (250 boys and 176 girls). Methods: Dental examinations were undertaken in kindergartens using World Health Organization diagnostic criteria for dental caries. Mothers completed a short questionnaire. Outcome measures: Prevalence of caries; rampant caries; caries in incisors; caries in incisors and/or canines and molars; mean number of decayed, missing and filled teeth/surfaces (dmft/s). Results: 36% of the children had caries, 7% had rampant caries. The more extensive pattern of caries involving primary molars as well as incisors and/or canines was seen in 12% of children. Children who had been wholly bottle-fed had five times the risk of having rampant caries compared to children who were breast-fed. Conclusions: The results indicated that infant feeding practice might be a key risk factor for the development of caries at an early age in this country as elsewhere.

Dubois, L. and M. Girard (2003). "Social inequalities in infant feeding during the first year of life. The Longitudinal Study of Child Development in Quebec (LSCDQ 1998-2002)."  6(8): 773-783.
	Objective: The aim of this paper is to describe the source and the scope of social inequalities in infant feeding practices. It examines the extent to which different recommendations are followed in different social groups and highlights the main factors influencing the total adherence to three recommendations at the population level. Design, setting and subjects: The study follows a representative sample (n = 2103) of the children born in 1998 in the province of Quebec (Canada). Detailed information on breast-feeding and complementary feeding was collected at 5 and 17 months by face-to-face interviews with the mother. The independent variables were mother's age, mother's education level, poverty level, family type, socio-economic status (SES) and living area. Odds ratios (adjusted for baby's rank in the family, birth weight and premature birth) are presented for breast-feeding, and for formula and cows' milk consumption, at different ages. The adherence to a combined indicator cumulating three recommendations (breast-fed at birth, complementary food at 4 months or later and cows' milk at 9 months or later) is also presented. Results: The analysis indicates that adherence to the recommendations is low in Quebec. Breast-feeding initiation, duration and its exclusivity improved with mother's age and education level and SES. Adherence to the different recommendations was interrelated, indicating an accumulation of bad nutritional circumstances for children in low-SES families. The odds of being fed in accordance with the three studied recommendations, when living in a family with the highest SES, was 2.3 times higher than when living in a family with the lowest SES. When living with a highly educated mother, the odds ratio was 2.7 times higher than when living with a low-educated mother. For mother's age, the odds ratio reached 3.7 for children from mothers aged greater than or equal to35 years, in comparison with children from mothers less than or equal to24 years old. When SES or mother's education level was combined with mother's age, the children in the best situation were >8 more times likely than the least privileged children to be fed in accordance with these recommendations. Living area was not related with infant feeding during the first year of life. Conclusions: Breast-feeding and nutrition could be related with different health and cognitive outcomes in childhood and later in life. Consequently, social disparities in diet during infancy could play a role in the development of social and health inequalities more broadly observed at the population level. Intervention to improve adherence to breast-feeding and nutrition recommendations in infancy should be prioritised and evaluated for its impact on the reduction on infant diet inequalities over time.

Dubois, L. and M. Girard (2005). "Breast-feeding, day-care attendance and the frequency of antibiotic treatments from 1.5 to 5 years: a population-based longitudinal study in Canada."  60(9): 2035-2044.
	This paper aims to study, at the population level, the protective role of breast-feeding on child health and its relation to day-care attendance during the first 5 years of life. The analysis, done on a national sample of children, uses antibiotic treatments as a general measure of health. It takes into account mother's education level, family poverty level, mother's smoking status during pregnancy and after birth, mother's age, sex, gestation duration, and birth rank. The analyses were performed using data from the Longitudinal Study of Child Development in Quebec (LSCDQ), conducted by Sante Quebec, a division of the Institut de la Statistique du Quebec (ISQ). The study was based on face-to-face interviews and included a set of questionnaires addressed to the children's mothers and fathers. A total of 1841 were included in the sample analyzed. Detailed information on breast-feeding and complementary feeding was collected at 5 and 17 months through face-to-face interviews with the most knowledgeable person, generally the mother. From this information, it has been possible to estimate breast-feeding duration and exclusivity. Our results indicate that the positive effects of breast-feeding on health persist up to the second year of life, even ill the presence of day-care attendance. The analyses indicate that breast-feeding reduced the number of antibiotic treatments given to children entering day care before 2.5 years of age. The study also indicates that the more-at-risk children could be protected by breast-feeding and by being taken care of in a familial setting, especially before 2.5 years of age. Mother's education, family poverty level, and other social inequality indicators did not play a role in the frequency of antibiotic treatments. Over the long term, it will be important to continue to monitor the health of children and to implement public health interventions aimed at reducing health problems among children of preschool age. (c) 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Dungy, C. I., M. E. Losch, et al. (1997). "Hospital infant formula discharge packages - Do they affect the duration of breast-feeding?"  151(7): 724-729.
	Objective: To determine whether the duration of breastfeeding is affected by the contents of the hospital discharge package. Design: A randomized clinical trial with 2 experimental interventions (a discharge package containing a manual breast pump only and a discharge package containing a commercially prepared infant formula and a manual breast pump) and a control group who received a commercially prepared infant formula discharge package only. Sociodemographic characteristics and information concerning prior births (including feeding methods) were obtained from each mother within 48 hours of her infant's birth. Sources of influence on the mother's feeding decision, maternal attitudes concerning breastfeeding, and maternal feeding preferences were also assessed. Participants: The sample consisted of 763 women who had given birth who were admitted to the maternal-fetal unit of a midwestern community hospital. Main Outcome Measures: Information concerning current method of infant feeding was obtained from telephone interviews conducted at 2-week intervals until the infant was 16 weeks old. The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, multivariate analysis of variance, logistic regression analysis, and survival analysis. Results: The content of the hospital discharge package did not affect whether the mother engaged in exclusive or partial breast-feeding during the 16-week follow-up interval. However, there was some evidence that providing formula samples at discharge from the hospital increased the duration of exclusive breast-feeding compared with providing a manual breast pump. Conclusion: This study does not support the assumption that inclusion of infant formula in hospital discharge packages decreases the duration of breastfeeding.

Dykes, F. (2005). "A critical ethnographic study of encounters between midwives and breast-feeding women in postnatal wards in England." Midwifery 21(3): 241-252.
	
Dykes, F. and C. Williams (1999). "Falling by the wayside: a phenomenological exploration of perceived breast-milk inadequacy in lactating women."  15(4): 232-246.
	Objective: to provide insight into the lived experience of breast feeding, in primiparous women. The main focus was upon women's perceptions related to the adequacy of their breast milk, for the purpose of exclusively nourishing their babies. Design: a longitudinal, phenomenological study involving in-depth, interactive interviews, conducted at 6, 12 and 18 weeks following the birth of the women's babies. Participants and setting: a convenience sample of ten primiparous women were recruited prior to discharge from a maternity unit, in the north of England, in 1998. Findings: two groups of participants emerged, three who became increasingly confident and empowered by breast feeding and the remaining seven whose confidence progressively diminished, with six of them expressing concern that their breast milk was inadequate. Four major themes related to the participants' perceptions emerged from the analysis: the quest to quantify and visualise breast milk; anxiety regarding the adequacy of their diet; breast feeding as a challenging journey, with most feeling that they had 'fallen by the wayside' (this related partly to inadequate and conflicting advice given by health professionals); and finally, unmet needs for support, nurturing and replenishment in return for 'giving out'. Conclusion: perceived breast-milk inadequacy is underpinned by a complex and synergistic interaction between socio-cultural influences, feeding management, the baby's behaviour, lactation physiology and the woman's psychological state. Implications: education of midwives and health visitors is required in relation to the needs of breast-feeding mothers within a Western industrialised society. Strong social policy is vital in the UK, to initiate socio-cultural changes, which would enable women who commence breast feeding to perceive it as an empowering and fulfilling experience and not one of 'falling by the wayside'. (C) 1999 Harcourt Publishers Ltd.

Earland, J., S. O. Ibrahim, et al. (1997). "Maternal employment: does it influence feeding practices during infancy?"  10(5): 305-311.
	Background: Although at least 30% of women with young children participate in the labour force, there has been very little research into the effect of maternal employment on the diets of young children. Increasingly it is being recognized that early feeding practices affect future health and may have a part to play in the development of eating disorders. Therefore it was decided to conduct a study in Sheffield to determine whether maternal employment influences infant feeding practices. Methods: Mothers from social classes I and II (employed n=27; unemployed n=28) with infants aged 10-12 months were interviewed in their homes. Information was collected on past and present food and drink consumption, weaning practices, and progression to independent feeding. Results: Employed mothers stopped breast-feeding earlier. This difference became evident after 2 months of age and reached significance at 4 months (P<0.05). Employed mothers introduced foods earlier and relied more on commercial baby foods, with significantly more spending over pound 7-12 per week at the time of the survey (P<0.05). Conclusions: Maternal employment does influence infant feeding practices and consequently may have repercussions on future health. Further studies are needed to investigate the long-term effects of maternal employment on infant feeding practices, particularly amongst lower socio-economic class families.

Earle, S. (2000). "Why some women do not breast feed: bottle feeding and fathers' role."  16(4): 323-330.
	Objective: to explore women's experiences and perceptions of baby feeding and to explore the explanations offered by women who choose to either breast or bottle feed. Design: a qualitative study, which was prospective in design. Participants were interviewed three times: the first stage was between six and 14 weeks of pregnancy; the second stage was between 34 and 39 weeks; and the third stage was between six and 14 weeks after childbirth. Participants: 19 participants were recruited to the study group via 12 antenatal clinics in Coventry, UK, Findings and discussion: the data indicate that participants make baby-feeding decisions either prior to conception or early in the pregnancy. Findings also indicate that both breast and bottle feeders possessed knowledge of the benefits of breast feeding, but this did not seem to influence decision making. One of the most significant factors influencing the decision to bottle feed appears to be a desire for paternal involvement. Conclusions and implications for practice: to increase the incidence of breast feeding, health-care professionals should consider the need for preconceptual health promotion. The role of paternal involvement in baby-feeding decisions also needs to be acknowledged and men need to be included in breast-feeding promotion campaigns. (C) 2000 Harcourt Publishers Ltd.

Earle, S. (2002). "Factors affecting the initiation of breastfeeding: implications for breastfeeding promotion." Health Promotion International 17(3): 205-214.
	
Earle, S. (2003). ""Bumps and Boobs": Fatness and Women's Experiences of Pregnancy." Women's Studies International Forum 26(3): 245-252.
	
Earnshaw, S. C. (1982). Women's magazines : Culture, ideology and the oppression of women, University of Liverpool.
	
Easthope, A. (1992). What a man's gotta do : the masculine myth in popular culture. New York ; London, Routledge, 1992.
	
Eckert, G. (2004). "If I Tell Them Then I Can." Childhood 11(1): 9-26.
	This article explores how Swedish children relate to adult discussions and rules concerning children’s play and television habits. It is argued that the children interviewed are well aware of adult ideas concerning children, TV and play. In accounting for these rules, the children present themselves as regulated by adults, but also as valuable to their parents. A closer look at the accounts reveals that the children sometimes oppose the descriptions imposed on them and are able to argue against the perceived adult opinion. It is important to point out, however, that the children broadly express a trust in adults and their judgements. 

Eckstein, K. C., L. M. Mikhail, et al. (2006). "Parents' perceptions of their child's weight and health." Pediatrics 117(3): 681-690.
	OBJECTIVE. This study explored parents' perceptions about their child's appearance and health and evaluated a tool to determine parents' visual perception of their child's weight. METHODS. Parents of children aged 2 to 17 years were surveyed concerning their child's appearance and health and opinions about childhood overweight. They also selected the sketch (from 7 choices) that most closely matched the body image of their child using 1 of 8 gender - and age- range - specific panels of sketches. Children's height and weight were measured. Respondents were grouped by child body mass index (BMI) percentile (< 5th, 5-84th, 85-94th [at risk for overweight (AROW)], and >= 95th [overweight]). Those with BMI >= 5th percentile were analyzed. Logistic regression was used to examine factors influencing parental perceptions and levels of worry about their overweight or AROW child. RESULTS. Of the 223 children, 60% were < 6 years old, 42% were male, 17% were black, 35% were Hispanic, 42% were white, and 7% were other; 19% were AROW, and 20% were overweight. Few parents (36%) identified their overweight or AROW child as '' overweight '' or '' a little overweight '' using words, but more (70%) selected a middle or heavier sketch. Among parents of overweight and AROW children, 18% recalled a doctor's concern and 26% were worried about their child's weight. If the overweight or AROW child was age >= 6 years, parents were more likely to identify their child as '' overweight '' or '' a little overweight '' using words, select a middle or heavier sketch, and to be worried. Parents of older children were more likely to be worried if they perceived their child as less active/slower than other children or recalled a doctor's concern. CONCLUSIONS. Few parents of overweight and AROW children recognized their child as overweight or were worried. Recognition of physical activity limitations and physicians' concerns may heighten the parent's level of concern. Sketches may be a useful tool to identify overweight children when measurements are not available.

Edmunds, L. D. (2005). "Parents' perceptions of health professionals' responses when seeking help for their overweight children."  22(3): 287-292.
	Background. Childhood obesity continues to worsen and so more parents of overweight children are likely to seek help from health professionals. Attitudes and practices of primary care personnel have been sought about adult obesity, but rarely about overweight children. Parents' views in this respect have not been explored. This paper addresses that omission. Objectives. The aim was to explore parents' perceptions of help-seeking experiences with health professionals. Methods. This study was a qualitative investigation with parents, conducted in central and south-west England using semi-structured interviews and body shapes used as prompts. Sampling was purposive to ensure an age range of children (4-15 years). Parents of 40 children with concerns about their child's weight were interviewed in their homes. Analysis was thematic and iterative. Results. Parents went through a complex process of monitoring and self-help approaches before seeking professional help. The responses they received from GPs included: being sympathetic, offering tests and further referrals, general advice which parents were already following, mothers were blamed, or dismissed as "making a fuss", and many showed a lack of interest. Health visitors offered practical advice and paediatric dietitians were very supportive. Experiences with community dietitians were less constructive. Conclusion. Professional responses ranged from positive, but not very helpful, to negative and dismissive. Health professionals may benefit from a better understanding of parents' plight and childhood obesity in general. This in turn may improve their attitudes and practices and encourage parents to seek help at an earlier stage of their child's overweight.

Edwards, L. J., J. R. McFarlane, et al. (2005). "Impact of periconceptional nutrition on maternal and fetal leptin and fetal adiposity in singleton and twin pregnancies."  288(1): R39-R45.
	It has been proposed that maternal nutrient restriction may alter the functional development of the adipocyte and the synthesis and secretion of the adipocyte-derived hormone, leptin, before birth. We have investigated the effects of restricted periconceptional undernutrition and/or restricted gestational nutrition on fetal plasma leptin concentrations and fetal adiposity in late gestation. There was no effect of either restricted periconceptional or gestational nutrition on maternal or fetal plasma leptin concentrations in singleton or twin pregnancies during late gestation. In ewes carrying twins, but not singletons, maternal plasma leptin concentrations in late gestation were directly related to the change in ewe weight that occurred during the 60 days before mating [ maternal leptin = 0.9 ( change in ewe weight) + 7.8; r = 0.6, P < 0.05]. In twin, but not singleton, pregnancies, there was also a significant relationship between maternal and fetal leptin concentrations ( maternal leptin = 0.5 fetal leptin + 4.2, r = 0.63, P < 0.005). The relative mass of perirenal fat was also significantly increased in twin fetal sheep in the control-restricted group (6.0 +/- 0.5) compared with the other nutritional groups (control-control: 4.1 +/- 0.4; restricted-restricted: 4.4 +/- 0.4; restricted- control: 4.3 +/- 0.3). In conclusion, the impact of maternal undernutrition on maternal plasma leptin concentrations during late gestation is dependent on fetal number. Furthermore, we have found that there is an increased fetal adiposity in the twins of ewes that experienced restricted nutrition throughout gestation, and this may be important in the programming of postnatal adiposity.

Edwards, N. J. (1997). "Patriotism a Table: Cookbooks, Textbooks and National Identity in Fin-De-Siecle France." Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Western Society for French History 24: 245-254.
	In late 19th-century France reformist educators tried to enhance the prestige and appeal of homemaking by backing basic practices with scientific theory. In this process food became associated with nationalism. Cookbooks and schools connected cooking with hygiene, and both were linked to intelligence, civilized living, and national greatness. Educators and cookbooks encouraged women to see cooking as an expression of national pride.

Ego, A., J. P. Dubos, et al. (2003). "Premature weaning of breastfeeding."  10(1): 11-18.
	This study was performed to describe the factors associated with a premature cessation of breastfeeding. Background and methods - Three hundred and forty nine women with a plan for prolonged breastfeeding over two months were interviewed during their hospital stay to define sociological and medical variables. One month after discharge, mothers were contacted by a physician for making out evolution of the breastfeeding. Results - Eighty-eight (28%) women were no more breastfeeding their infant and were compared to the other 224 (64%) mothers. The main sociological factors influencing the cessation of breastfeeding were low education level (odds ratio 4.2 [95% CI 2.2-8.3]), and primiparity (odds ratio 2.1 [95% CI 1.1-3.9]). Pacifier use was associated with a lower duration of breastfeeding (odds ratio 2.5 [95% CI 1.4-4.5]). Medical predictive factors were infant weight loss (odds ratio 4.3 [95% CI 1.7-10.6]), respect of intervals between feeding times (odds ratio 2.1 [95% CI 1.1-4.4]), delay before the first feeding (odds ratio 1.9 [95% CI 1.0-3.6]). On the other hand formula supplementation was not related with cessation of breastfeeding. Discussion and conclusion - As the success of breastfeeding depends on maternal motivation, it seems essential to take into account mothers' plan to study breastfeeding duration. The knowledge of predictive factors of the cessation of breastfeeding should allow to identify mothers who need particularly the attention of healthcare professionals. (C) 2003 Editions scientifiques et medicales Elsevier SAS. All rights reserved.

Ehrensaft, D. (1990). Parenting together : men and women sharing the care of their children. Urbana, University of Illinois Press.
	
Elias, N., E. Dunning, et al. (2000). The civilizing process : sociogenetic and psychogenetic investigations. Oxford [England] ; Cambridge, Mass., Blackwell Publishers.
	
Elliot, R. (2001). "Growing up and Giving up: Smoking in Paul Thompson's 100 Families." Oral History 29.1(Spring): 73-84.
	
Else-Quest, N. M., J. S. Hyde, et al. (2003). "Breastfeeding, bonding, and the mother-infant relationship."  49(4): 495-517.
	Mothers often report that breastfeeding is an enjoyable and emotionally beneficial experience they share with their infants. However, little research has investigated the role of feeding method in the development of the maternal bond and the mother-infant relationship. This study tested two hypotheses-the bonding hypothesis and the good-enough caregiver hypothesis-regarding the association of breastfeeding with maternal bonding and the mother-infant relationship. Using data from a longitudinal study of 570 mother-infant pairs, bonding and the quality of the mother-infant relationship were measured at 4 and 12 months. Although breastfeeding dyads tended to show higher quality relationships at 12 months, bottlefeeding dyads did not display poor quality or precarious relationships. Such results are encouraging for nonmaternal caregivers and mothers who bottlefeed their children.

Endres, K. L. and T. L. Lueck (1995). Women's periodicals in the United States : consumer magazines. Westport, Conn. ; London, Greenwood Press.
	
Engle, P. (1993). "Influences of mothers' and fathers' income on children's nutritional status in Guatemala." Social Science and Medicine 37(11): 1303-1312.
	The relative effects of fathers' and mothers' income on children's nutritional status were examined with a sample of 294 peri-urban Guatemalan children aged 8-47 months. Whether or not incomes tended to be pooled, and the relation of income earning to decision-making about purchases were examined. Four measures of income were constructed for both mother and father: total income, contribution to the household food budget, percentage of her/his income contributed to the household food budget, and a percentage of total family income earned by that person. In the majority of households, women did not report pooling their incomes. Women who earned a higher proportion of the family income had significantly more control over decision-making in all areas except food purchases, which were already primarily women's decisions. Relationships of income measures with children's nutritional status were examined with multiple linear regression analyses controlling for potentially confounding variables. For mothers, the percentage of the total family income they earned was most highly associated with children's nutritional status, suggesting that income control by mothers may have benefits for children. For fathers, the percentage of their income they contributed to the household food budget was most highly associated with children's nutritional status, suggesting that father investment or attitude toward children has important benefits for children.

Erickson, R. J. (2005). "Why Emotion Work Matters: Sex, Gender, and the Division Household Labor."
	Attempting to explain why biological sex remains the primary predictor of household labor allocation, gender theorists have suggested that husbands & wives perform family work in ways that facilitate culturally appropriate constructions of gender. To date, however, researchers have yet to consider the theoretical & empirical significance of emotion work in their studies of the gendered division of household labor. Using survey data from 335 employed, married parents, I examine the relative influence of economic resources, time constraints, gender ideology, sex, & gender on the performance of housework, child care, & emotion work. Results indicate that gender construction, not sex, predicts the performance of emotion work & that this performance reflects a key difference in men's & women's gendered constructions of self. 4 Tables, 55 References. Adapted from the source document.

Ertem, I. O., N. Votto, et al. (2001). "The timing and predictors of the early termination of breastfeeding."  107(3): 543-548.
	Objective. To determine the prevalence and correlates of the early discontinuation of breastfeeding by mothers eligible for the Women, Infants, and Children Program (WIC). Methodology. A longitudinal observational study in which we enrolled English-speaking mothers who initiated breastfeeding after delivering healthy-term infants at Yale-New Haven Hospital and planned to bring their infants to the hospital's primary care center. Data on mother's baseline knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, and problems regarding breastfeeding were collected by semistructured interviews within 48 hours after delivery, at 1 and 2 weeks' postpartum, and by chart reviews at 2 and 4 months. A nonparticipating control group was used to test the Hawthorne effect. Results. Of the 64 participating mothers, the majority were minority (56% black, 34% of Puerto Rican origin), single (75%), and already enrolled in WIC (91%). The rates of discontinuation of breastfeeding were 27%, 37%, 70%, and 89% by 1 week, 2 weeks, 2 months, and 4 months, respectively. The mother's knowledge and problems of lactation were not associated with the early discontinuation of breastfeeding. After using logistic regression to control for potential confounders, mothers who lacked confidence at baseline that they would still be breastfeeding at 2 months (risk ratio: 2.38, 95% confidence interval: 1.82-6.18), and those who believed that the baby prefers formula (risk ratio: 1.68, 95% confidence interval: 1.04-2.71) were more likely to stop breastfeeding within the first 2 weeks postpartum. Conclusions. The results of this study demonstrate that interventions aimed at prolonging the duration of breastfeeding in this population will need to shift focus from increasing knowledge and managing problems of lactation to enhancing the mother's confidence regarding breastfeeding, while also addressing beliefs regarding an infant's preferences.

Esparo, G., J. Canals, et al. (2004). "Feeding problems in nursery children: prevalence and psychosocial factors."  93(5): 663-668.
	Aim: In this study we analyze the prevalence of feeding problems in a sample of nursery children and examine the environmental and psychopathological factors related to such problems. Methods: We used the Early Childhood Inventory--Parents Checklist to assess 851 Spanish children aged between 3 and 6 years from both urban and rural samples. This screens emotional and behavioural problems and is based on the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-IV. We collected sociodemographic data and information about life events and the psychopathology of the children's parents (General Health Questionnaire-28). Results: Our results showed that the prevalence of feeding problems was 4.8% and that there were no differences between gender. Sample subtype, socioeconomic level and family characteristics were not linked to feeding problems. Children with feeding problems had significantly more symptoms of psychological problems and somatic complaints and had experienced more life events in the previous 12 months. The psychopathology of the mother, especially in terms of anxiety problems, increased the risk of feeding problems in children. Conclusion: When there are complaints of feeding problems in preschools, the psychological problems of children and their mothers should be taken into consideration during paediatric consultation, irrespective of gender or socioeconomic status.

Estes, J. W. (1996). "The Medical Properties of Food in the Eighteenth Century." Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 51(2): 127-154.
	The medical properties ascribed to different foodstuffs by physicians in 18th-century Europe and North America were still derived largely from the theory of humors, but the so-called solidist theory and new chemical theories were easily incorporated. The classification of foods in chemical terms made prescription easier, but it is difficult to determine what properties of particular foods prompted their entry into common medical usage. Medical recipe guides, general health guides, and cookbooks spread the ideas associating specific foods to the prevention and cure of disease to women cooking for households of all sizes and conditions.

Etelson, D., D. A. Brand, et al. (2003). "Childhood obesity: do parents recognise this health risk?" Obesity Research 11: 1362-1368.
	
European Commission Childcare, M. a. c. N. (1993). Men as carers : towards a culture of responsibility, sharing and reciprocity between women and men in the care and upbringing of children.
	
European Commission. Directorate-General for Employment, I. R. and A. Social (1999). Inventory of projects regarding families and children, 1993-1997. Luxembourg, Office for the Official Publications of the European Communities.
	
European Commission. Network on, C., E. Other Measures to Reconcile, et al. Annual report. [Brussels], The Network.
	
European Commission. Network on, C., E. other Measures to Reconcile, et al. (1994). Men as carers : towards a culture of responsibility, sharing and reciprocity between women and men in the care and upbringing of children : report of an international seminar Ravenna, Italy, May 21-22 1993. London, European Commission Network on Childcare and other Measures to Reconcile Employment and Family Responsibilities.
	
Evans, J. and D. Legrange (1995). "Body-Size and Parenting in Eating Disorders - a Comparative-Study of the Attitudes of Mothers Towards Their Children."  18(1): 39-48.
	The present study aimed to redress the paucity of available information on the effects of eating disorders on patients' parenting capabilities and their children's development. Ten previous and/or current eating-disordered mothers and their children and 10 normal mothers and their offspring completed several rating scales and participated in a semistructured interview. The results indicated that both groups and their children displayed similar levels of satisfaction with their body sizes and perceived their current weights and shape with a similar degree of accuracy. These groups were, however, found to differ on the types of feeding employed during their children's infancy with the eating-disordered mothers choosing to schedule feed their babies, whereas the control mothers fed on demand. At least half the children of eating-disordered mothers were also described as suffering from emotional difficulties. Recommendations are made for increased availability of supportive and instructive facilities for these mothers, particularly during their nursing period. (C) 1995 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Evenhouse, E. and S. Reilly (2005). "Improved estimates of the benefits of breastfeeding using sibling comparisons to reduce selection bias." Health Services Research 40(6): 1781-1802.
	
Fairburn, C. G., A. Stein, et al. (1992). "Eating Habits and Eating Disorders During Pregnancy."  54(6): 665-672.
	A general population sample of 100 primigravid women was studied prospectively to describe the changes in eating that occur in pregnancy with particular reference to cravings and aversions and the behavior and attitudes characteristic of clinical eating disorders. Assessment was by standardized interview. Dietary cravings and aversions were found to be common and largely confined to early pregnancy. Eating disorder features decreased in severity early in pregnancy but increased later on. Dietary cravings rarely resulted in episodes of overeating like those seen in patients with eating disorders. In this study of a general population sample, no evidence was found of a relationship between pregnancy outcome and the severity of eating disorder features prior to pregnancy.

Fairburn, C. G. W., S L. (1990). "The Impact of Pregnancy on Eating Habits and Attitudes to Shape and Weight." International Journal of Eating Disorders 9(2): 153-160.
	
Faith, M. S., R. I. Berkowitz, et al. (2004). "Parental feeding attitudes and styles and child body mass index: prospective analysis of a gene-environment interaction." Pediatrics 114: e429-e436.
	
Faith, M. S., S. Heshka, et al. (2003). "Maternal-child feeding patterns and child body weight - Findings from a population-based sample." Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 157(9): 926-932.
	Background: Certain mother-child feeding patterns (MCFPs) may promote childhood obesity and/or disordered eating. Objectives: To assess the demographic correlates of MCFPs and to test whether differences in MCFPs are associated with child body mass index (BMI; calculated as weight in kilograms divided by the square of height in meters) z scores in a population-based study. Design: A secondary analysis of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth main and child cohorts was conducted on more than 1000 Hispanic, African American, and non-Hispanic/non-African American children, aged 3 to 6 years. The MCFPs were measured by means of 3 interview questions probing mother-allotted child food choice, child compliance during meals, and child obedience during meals. Results: Mothers of non-Hispanic/non-African American children allotted greater food choice than mothers of African American or Hispanic children. Maternal BMI and other demographic measures were unrelated to MCFPs. The lowest levels of mother-allotted child food choice and child eating compliance were associated with reduced child BMI, with mean BMI z scores of -0.36 and -0.41, respectively. Effect sizes were small, however, and MCFPs did not discriminate children who were overweight or at risk for being overweight from children who were not (P>.05). Conclusions: Feeding strategies providing the least child food choice were associated with reduced child BMI. However, MCFPs did not relate to child overweight status.

Faith, M. S., S. Heshka, et al. (2003). "Maternal-child feeding patterns and child body weight - Findings from a population-based sample."  157(9): 926-932.
	Background: Certain mother-child feeding patterns (MCFPs) may promote childhood obesity and/or disordered eating. Objectives: To assess the demographic correlates of MCFPs and to test whether differences in MCFPs are associated with child body mass index (BMI; calculated as weight in kilograms divided by the square of height in meters) z scores in a population-based study. Design: A secondary analysis of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth main and child cohorts was conducted on more than 1000 Hispanic, African American, and non-Hispanic/non-African American children, aged 3 to 6 years. The MCFPs were measured by means of 3 interview questions probing mother-allotted child food choice, child compliance during meals, and child obedience during meals. Results: Mothers of non-Hispanic/non-African American children allotted greater food choice than mothers of African American or Hispanic children. Maternal BMI and other demographic measures were unrelated to MCFPs. The lowest levels of mother-allotted child food choice and child eating compliance were associated with reduced child BMI, with mean BMI z scores of -0.36 and -0.41, respectively. Effect sizes were small, however, and MCFPs did not discriminate children who were overweight or at risk for being overweight from children who were not (P>.05). Conclusions: Feeding strategies providing the least child food choice were associated with reduced child BMI. However, MCFPs did not relate to child overweight status.

Faith, M. S., K. S. Scanlon, et al. (2004). "Parent-child feeding strategies and their relationships to child eating and weight status." Obesity Research. 12(11): 1711-22.
	Parental feeding styles may promote overeating or overweight in children. A comprehensive literature review was undertaken to summarize the associations between parental feeding styles and child eating and weight status. Twenty-two studies were identified. We systematically coded study attributes and outcomes and tested for patterns of association. Nineteen studies (86%) reported at least one significant association between parental feeding style and child outcome, although study methodology and results varied considerably. Studies measuring parental feeding restriction, as opposed to general feeding control or another feeding domain, were more likely to report positive associations with child eating and weight status. Certain associations differed by gender and by outcome measurement (e.g., rate of eating as opposed to total energy intake). Parental feeding restriction, but no other feeding domain, was associated with increased child eating and weight status. Longitudinal studies are needed to test underlying causal pathways, including bidirectional causal models, and to substantiate findings in the presence of other obesity risk factors. [References: 61]

Fakhoury, W. K. H., S. Priebe, et al. (2005). "Goals of new long-stay patients in supported housing: a UK study."
	Aim: This study assessed the goals "new" long-stay clients aim to achieve by being in supported housing (SH), compared the goals stated by clients and staff, and tested whether subgroups of clients can be identified on the basis of their goals, quality of life and psychopathology. Method: Interviews were conducted with 41 clients and 39 staff of supported houses in London and Essex, UK. Descriptive, content and cluster analyses were used to analyse the results. Results: Clients' most frequently reported goal was moving to independent housing, followed by staying healthy, and increasing living skills. A comparison of goals reported by clients and staff showed poor or no agreement between them. Cluster analyses identified two clusters of clients. Cluster A (n = 23) contained those with no stated goals (or with the aim of staying healthy), lower quality of life, and more psychopathology; cluster B (n = 18) included those with an aim to move to independent housing, better quality of life, and less psychopathology. Conclusion: In the UK, more staff training may be needed to identify and achieve the goals of the "new" long-stay clients. For a subgroup of these clients, SH may still be a long-term care setting; while for another subgroup, new forms of rehabilitation in SH and better opportunities to leave SH may have to be developed. More conceptual and practical efforts are needed to manage the transformation of many settings from homes for life to transitional places where residents receive specific interventions. (Original abstract)

Falceto, O. G., E. R. J. Giugliani, et al. (2004). "Influence of parental mental health on early termination of breast-feeding: a case-control study." Journal of the American Board of Family Practice 17(3): 173-183.
	
Farough, S. (2002). "Recreating men: Postmodern masculinity politics." GENDER & SOCIETY 16(4): 565-566.
	
Farrow, C. and J. Blissett (2006). "Breast-feeding, maternal feeding practices and mealtime negativity at one year."  46(1): 49-56.
	This paper explores whether breast-feeding, mediated by lower maternal use of controlling strategies, predicts more positive mealtime interactions between mothers and their I year old infants. Eighty-seven women completed questionnaires regarding breast-feeding, assessing their control over child feeding and mealtime negativity at I year of infant age. Seventy-four of these women were also observed feeding their infants solid food at I year. Mediation analyses demonstrated that the experience of breast-feeding, mediated by lower reported maternal control over child feeding, predicted maternal reports of less negative mealtime interactions. The experience of breast-feeding also predicted observations of less conflict at mealtimes, mediated by observations of maternal sensitivity during feeding interactions. The implications of these findings are discussed. (c) 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Faust, J. (2000). "Integration of family and cognitive behavioral therapy for treating sexually abused children." Cognitive and Behavioral Practice 7(3): 361-368.
	This paper demonstrates the application and integration of family systems therapy and cognitive behavioral therapy for the treatment of symptomatic children with histories of sexual abuse. This is achieved via the case of Ryan, a 12-year-old boy who had been sexually abused by two family members and who was experiencing affective/anxiety symptoms and acting-out behavior problems. While this paper provides a theoretical rationale and comprehensive treatment plan, additional details of specific treatment interventions, from both treatment modalities, are delineated. From the family systems perspective, an emphasis is placed upon the discussion of realignment of family structure and changing familial communication patterns (including messages about safety, Protection, and validation of children's experiences). From the cognitive behavioral paradigm, exposure therapy and cognitive restructuring are accentuated. Finally, the importance of the integration of both modalities without violating the theoretical assumptions of either is highlighted

Featherstone, B. and M. Manby (2006). "Working with Families: Messages for Policy and Practice from an Evaluation of a School-based Project." Children and society 22(1): 30–39.
	
Fee, M. (2006). "Racializing narratives: Obesity, diabetes and the “Aboriginal” thrifty genotype " Social Science and Medicine 62(12): 2988-2997 
	This post-colonial reading of narratives of obesity, diabetes, and the hypothesized “thrifty genotype” ascribed to Aboriginal peoples shows how scientific and popular texts support the belief in biological “race.” Although the scientific consensus is that “race” is not a empirical category, many scientists use it without comment as a “crude proxy” for presumed genetic differences. The division between science and the social sciences/humanities protects such confusing practices from full scientific and social critique, something interdisciplinary research teams, science studies and improved peer review could provide. 

Fein, S. B. and B. Roe (1998). "The effect of work status on initiation and duration of breast-feeding."  88(7): 1042-1046.
	Objectives. In this study, longitudinal data are used to examine the effect of work status on breast-feeding initiation and duration. Methods. Mothers from a mail panel completed questionnaires during late pregnancy and 10 times in the infant's first year. Mother's work status was categorized for initiation by hours she expected, before delivery to work and for duration by hours she worked at month 3. Covariates were demographics; parity; medical, delivery, and hospital experiences; social support; embarrassment; and health promotion. Results. Expecting to work part-time neither decreased nor increased the probability of breast-feeding relative to expecting not to work (odds ratios [ORs] = .83 and .89, p greater-than .50), but expecting to work full-time decreased the probability of breast-feeding (OR = .47, P less-than .01). Working full-time at 3 months postpartum decreased breast-feeding duration by an average of 8.6 weeks (P less-than .001) relative to not working, but part-time work of 4 or fewer hours per day did not affect duration and part-time work of more than 4 hours per day decreased duration less than full-time work. Conclusion. Part-time work is an effective strategy to help mothers combine breast-feeding and employment.

Felce, D., K. Lowe, et al. (2002). "Association between the Provision Characteristics and Operation of Supported Housing Services and Resident Outcomes."
	Variation in outcome between community housing services indicates the need for research on the factors that predict quality of life. The associations between service sector, staffing levels, staff characteristics, internal organization, noninstitutional milieu, staff activity, the nature & extent of staff attention to residents, & a range of resident outcomes were explored in a study of 10 statutory, 10 voluntary & 9 private-sector community housing schemes in South Wales. There were no significant differences between sectors after differences in resident abilities were taken into account. Smaller residence size was associated with lower resident engagement in activity, & did not predict social or community integration. Higher staff to resident ratios predicted lower resident participation in household tasks but a greater frequency of community activities. A higher proportion of qualified staff was not shown to be a positive attribute. Measures of the internal organization of the settings were not strongly related to outcome. Residents receiving more attention from staff predicted greater participation in domestic activities & residents receiving more assistance from staff predicted higher engagement in activity. The quality of life experienced by residents was strongly associated with their own abilities. Other influences emerged with less clarity. Perhaps the strongest conclusion is that setting factors widely believed to promote quality of life, such as smaller size of residence, higher staffing, & individual planning, were not shown to have such unequivocal effects. 6 Tables, 43 References. Adapted from the source document.

Felce, D., K. Lowe, et al. (2002). "Staff Activity in Supported Housing Services."
	Variation in staff performance between small community housing services indicates the need for research on the factors that predict high-quality care. The associations between service sector, staffing levels, staff characteristics, internal organization or working practices, noninstitutional milieu, & staff activity & the nature & extent of staff attention to residents were explored in a study of 10 statutory, 10 voluntary, & 9 private-sector community housing schemes in South Wales. There were few significant differences between sectors after differences in resident abilities were taken into account. Higher staff to resident ratios predicted greater resident receipt of attention & assistance but also a lower proportion of time during which each member of staff was directly concerned with residents. A greater range in resident ability predicted lower resident receipt of attention & assistance. A higher proportion of qualified staff was not shown to be a positive attribute but greater prior experience was associated with staff spending more time directly concerned with residents, less time doing "other" activity, & residents receiving more assistance. Measures of the internal organization & noninstitutional milieu of the settings were not strongly related to staff activity. The findings are consistent with previous research that there are diminishing marginal returns associated with increasing staff; size of residence was unimportant. Links between service organization & staff performance require further research but retaining experienced staff appears to be important. As resident receipt of attention & assistance was unrelated to their adaptive behavior level, there is a need to find ways to ensure that staff support better matches the needs of residents. 4 Tables, 1 Figure, 42 References. Adapted from the source document.

Ferguson, M. (1979). The creation of myths with reference to female roles : the impact of social change on the contents and editorial processes of mass circulation women's magazines, 1949-1978. London, University of London: 292 leaves.
	
Ferguson, M. (1983). Forever feminine : women's magazines and the cult of femininity. Aldershot, Gower, 1985.
	
Ferland, S. and H. T. O'Brien (2003). "Maternal dietary intake and pregnancy outcome."  48(2): 86-94.
	OBJECTIVE: To study the relationship between maternal diet and infant anthropometric measurements in 56 women, aged 28 +/- 5.1 years, with singleton pregnancies. STUDY DESIGN: The overall quality of the diet (three 24-hour recalls), including supplementation, was evaluated at 34 +/- 1.3 weeks using a total mean adequacy ratio (TMAR) of 12 nutrients. Specific interviewing techniques were used to minimize social desirability bias. Anthropometric measurements of both parents and maternal lifestyle practices were also obtained. Infant weight, crown-heel length and head circumference were measured 14.6 +/- 4.4 days after birth. RESULTS: Stepwise multiple regression analysis revealed that maternal diet quality (TMAR) was significantly related to infant weight (r=.039, P=.036) and crown-heel length (r=.071, P=.007). Other significant predictors included gestational age, maternal height, sex, smoking and physical activity. CONCLUSION: Maternal diet was positively associated with infant weight and crown-heel length.

Ferrari, J. R., M. M. Loftus, et al. (1999). "Young and older caregivers at homeless animal and human shelters: selfish and selfless motives in helping others."
	Young (n=34) and older (n=70) adult volunteers at either animal (n=48) or human (n=56) homeless shelters were asked to complete measures of caregiver stress/satisfaction, volunteer motives, and social desirability. Young assisting animals reported a significantly higher caseload and spending significantly more time per visit with their clients. They also reported significantly higher levels of caregiver stress with humans more than animals. Volunteers at human homeless shelters claimed the need for meeting social expectations as a motive for community service. Younger volunteers reported gaining relevant career experience, obtaining knowledge of the plight of others, relieving aversive emotions, and meeting normative expectations as significant motives. (Original abstract - amended)

Ferris, A. M., S. H. Neubauer, et al. (1993). "Perinatal Lactation Protocol and Outcome in Mothers with and without Insulin-Dependent Diabetes-Mellitus."  58(1): 43-48.
	This study compared the course of lactation from days 2 to 84 postpartum in 33 women with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM); 33 women without diabetes selected by using gestational age of the infant, method of delivery, sex of the infant, and prior lactation experience as a means of ensuring similar patterns in factors known to influence success (control subjects); and 11 healthy reference subjects who delivered vaginally. Nutritionists visited the mothers on days 2, 3, 7, 14, 42, and 84 postpartum; obtained prenatal and perinatal medical information; and questioned the mothers on their breast-feeding experience. Women with IDDM were able to establish lactation despite postpartum separation from their infants, delays in the start of breast-feeding, reduced frequency of feeding, increased use of supplemental feedings, and the high rate of cesarean section. Clinicians must recognize the need to provide appropriate counseling so that mothers with IDDM will not be discouraged by problems with breast-feeding.

Fessler, D. M. T., S. J. Eng, et al. (2005). "Elevated disgust sensitivity in the first trimester of pregnancy - Evidence supporting prophylaxis the compensatory hypothesis."  26(4): 344-351.
	By motivating avoidance of contaminants, the experience of disgust guards against disease. Because behavioral prophylaxis entails time, energy, and opportunity costs, Fessler and Navarrete [Evol. Hum. Behav. 24 (2003) 406-417] hypothesized that disgust sensitivity is adjusted as a function of immunocompetence. Changes in immune functioning over the course of pregnancy offer an opportunity to test this notion. Relative to later stages, the first trimester of pregnancy involves substantial suppression of the maternal immune response, and both maternal and fetal vulnerability to pathogens are greatest during this phase; food-borne illnesses, in particular, pose a threat during the first trimester. Using a Web-based survey of 496 pregnant women, we compared participants in the first trimester with those in later stages of pregnancy. Results reveal heightened disgust sensitivity in the first trimester, notably including disgust sensitivity in the food domain. This pattern is not simply a consequence of elevated nausea during the first trimester, as, although disgust sensitivity and current level of nausea are correlated, first trimester women remain more easily disgusted in the food domain even after controlling for the greater incidence of nausea. These results provide preliminary support for the hypothesis that disgust sensitivity varies during pregnancy in a manner that compensates for maternal and fetal vulnerability to disease. (c) 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Feunekes, G. I. J., C. de Graaf, et al. (1998). "Food choice and fat intake of adolescents and adults: associations of intakes within social networks." Preventive Medicine 27: 645-656.
	
Fewtrell, M. S. (2004). "The long-term benefits of having been breast-fed." Current Paediatrics 14: 97-103.
	
Field, F. (2005). "Eleanor Rathbone and the Politics of Citizenship."
	The contributions of Eleanor Rathbone to contemporary understandings of citizenship & the connection between citizenship & motherhood are considered. An overview of Rathbone's career as a Member of British Parliament & of the origins of her notion of citizenship is presented; it is stressed that Rathbone's conception of citizenship is contingent upon principles of high character, presenting one's best self, & responsibility. Rathbone's efforts to extend enfranchisement to British women during the 1910s & to have the British state endow motherhood are then examined. In addition, Rathbone's contention that inadequate parenting is responsible for various social problems & recommendations for establishing an endowment scheme that would allow mothers to properly nurture their children are covered. It is stressed that contemporary British society should initiate debates regarding the endowment of motherhood & the financial & social costs of endowing mothers of young children. J. W. Parker.

Finch, C. and E. L. Daniel (2002). "Breastfeeding education program with incentives increases exclusive breastfeeding among urban WIC participants." Journal of the American Dietetic Association 102(7): 981-984.
	
Finch, J. (1989). Family obligations and social change. Cambridge, Polity Press.
	
Finch, J., & Mason, J. (1993). Negotating Family Responsibilities.
	
Fiorino, V. (2003). "Gender and masculinity - A historical perspective." MOUVEMENT SOCIAL(203): 130-132.
	
Fischler, C. (1980). "Food habits, social change and nature/culture dilemma." Social Science Information 19(6): 937-53.
	
Fischler, C. (1986). "Learned versus "spontaneous" dietetics: French mothers' views of what children should eat." Social Science Information 25(4): 945-65.
	
Fischler, C. (1987). Attitudes toward Sugar and Sweetness in Historical and Sociological Perspective. Sweetness. J. Dobbing. Berlin, Springer-Verlag.
	
Fischler, C. (1988). "Food, Self and Identity." Social Science Information 27(2): 275-92.
	
Fischler, C. (1989). Cuisines and Food Selection. Food Acceptability. D. M. H. Thomson. London, Elsevier.
	
Fisher, J. O. and L. L. Birch (1999). "Restricting access to foods and children's eating." Appetite. 32(3): 405-19.
	This study evaluated maternal restriction of children's access to snack foods as a predictor of children's intake of those foods when they were made freely available. In addition, child and parent eating-related "risk" factors were used to predict maternal reports of restricting access. Participants were 71, 3-to-5-year-old children (36 boys, 35 girls) and their parents. Children's snack food intake was measured immediately following a meal, in a setting offering free access to palatable snack foods. Child and maternal reports of restricting children's access to those snack foods were obtained. In addition, information on child and parent adiposity as well as parents' restrained and disinhibited eating was used to examine "risk" factors for restricting access. For girls only, child and maternal reports of restricting access predicted girls' snack food intake, with higher levels of restriction predicting higher levels of snack food intake. Maternal restriction, in turn, was predicted by children's adiposity. Additionally, parents' own restrained eating style predicted maternal restriction of girls' access to snack foods. Copyright 1999 Academic Press.

Fisher, J. O. and L. L. Birch (1999). "Restricting access to palatable foods affects children's behavioural response, food selection and intake." American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 69: 1264-1272.
	
Fisher, J. O. and L. L. Birch (2002). "Eating in the absence of hunger and overweight in girls from 5 to 7 y of age." Am J Clin Nutr 76(1): 226-31.
	BACKGROUND: Eating when exposed to large portions of palatable foods in the absence of hunger has been suggested to contribute to overweight. OBJECTIVE: This research evaluated whether young girls' eating in the absence of hunger was stable across a 2-y period in middle childhood, was associated with an increased risk of overweight, and could be predicted by parents' use of restriction in child feeding. DESIGN: The participants were 192 non-Hispanic white girls and their parents, assessed when the girls were 5 and 7 y of age. The girls' eating when exposed to palatable foods in the absence of hunger was measured after they consumed a standard lunch and indicated that they were no longer hungry. RESULTS: Eating in the absence of hunger showed moderate stability across the 2-y period for most of the girls. The girls who ate large amounts of snack foods in the absence of hunger at 5 and 7 y of age were 4.6 times as likely to be overweight at both ages. Parents' reports of restricting their daughter's access to foods at age 5 y predicted girls' eating in the absence of hunger at age 7 y, even when the girls' weight status and eating in the absence of hunger at age 5 y were controlled for. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides the first evidence that young girls' eating in the absence of hunger may represent a stable phenotypic behavior of young overweight girls. In addition, these findings are consistent with previous work indicating that parents' restrictive feeding practices may contribute to this behavior.

Fisher, J. O., L. L. Birch, et al. (2000). "Breast-feeding through the first year predicts maternal control in feeding and subsequent toddler energy intakes." Journal of the American Dietetic Association 100(6): 641-646.
	Objective Current recommendations for infant feeding encourage breast-feeding through the first year. This research was conducted to evaluate associations among breast-feeding, maternal control of child feeding, and the dietary intake of toddlers during the second year of life, In particular, we sought to determine whether breast-feeding through the first year and subsequent toddler intake was mediated via maternal control of child feeding. Design/subjects Fifty-five white infants and their mothers were monitored longitudinally from age 12 or 13 months to age 18 months. Main outcome measures Breast-feeding through the first year and maternal control in infant feeding were evaluated as predictors of energy intake at age 18 months. Statistical analyses performed Regression analysis was used to evaluate predictors of toddler energy intake at age 18 months. A mediation model tested if the relationship between breast-feeding and infant intake was mediated by maternal control in feeding. Results Breast-feeding through the first year was associated with higher toddler energy intakes at age 18 months through its influence on maternal control in feeding. Mothers who breast-fed their infants for at least 12 months used lower levels of control in feeding. Lower levels of maternal control in feeding were associated with higher toddler energy intakes. The highest energy intakes among children aged 18 months were observed among taller and leaner toddlers. Applications/conclusions Our findings suggest that breast-feeding through the first year may have an effect on children's energy intake by shaping mothers' child-feeding practices. These findings may be used by clinicians to assist parents in making informed decisions about choice of infant-feeding method and to provide anticipatory guidance regarding infant-feeding style when initiating dietary diversity.

Flynn, A., M. Harrison, et al. (1998). Regulation, rights and the structuring of food choices. The Nation's Diet. The Social Science of Food Choice. A. Murcott. Essex, Pearson Education: 152-167.
	
Foley, P. (2001). 'Our Bodies, Ourselves'?: Mothers, Children and Health Care at Home. Children in Society - Contemporary Theory, Policy and Practice. P. Foley, J. Roche and S. Tucker. Basingstoke, Palgrave: 98-103.
	
Foord, M. and P. Simic. (2001). "A sustainable approach to planning housing and social care: if not now, when?"
	The publication of 'Supporting People' (Department of Social Security 1998) has given urgency to discussions around needs analysis, planning, user voice and the development of 'normal' housing for people with support needs. Explores a project, which aimed to design a collaborative model for identifying supported housing needs. (Original abstract - amended)

Forbes, G. B., L. Adams-Curtis, et al. (2005). "Body dissatisfaction in college women and their mothers: Cohort effects, developmental effects, and the influences of body size, sexism, and the thin body ideal."  53(3-4): 281-298.
	A study of body dissatisfaction, as measured by the Figure Rating Scale ( Stunkard, Sorenson, & Schlusinger, 1983) and the Body Esteem Scale ( Franzoi & Shields, 1984), in 75 college women and their mothers indicated that both daughters and mothers experienced body dissatisfaction. When body size was statistically controlled, either no difference was found between the groups or daughters were found to have greater body dissatisfaction than mothers. The results supported the hypotheses that ( 1) there are generational differences in body dissatisfaction, ( 2) both cohort and developmental effects contribute to these differences, and ( 3) that a developmental effect ( mothers' greater body size) may obscure a cohort effect ( daughters' greater exposure to the thin body ideal). Body dissatisfaction measures based on the mothers' retrospective ratings of how they felt at their daughters' age were consistent with these hypotheses. Relationships between body dissatisfaction and the Sociocultural Attitudes Toward Appearance Questionnaire ( Heinberg, Thompson, & Stormer, 1995) were stronger and more frequent for daughters than for mothers and for the Internalization Scale than for the Awareness Scale. Relationships between the Ambivalent Sexism Inventory ( Glick & Fiske, 2001) and body dissatisfaction were stronger for mothers than for daughters and for Benevolent Sexism than for Hostile Sexism.

Foresight Trends and Drivers of Obesity: A Literature Review for the Foresight Project on Obesity 
	
Forste, R. (2002). "Where Are All the Men? A Conceptual Analysis of the Role of Men in Family Formation." JOURNAL OF FAMILY ISSUES 23(5): 579-600.
	Over the past several decades, births in the United States occurring outside of marriage have increased dramatically. At the same time, the involvement of men in child rearing has split along a continuum between two distinct types: "Good Dads," men who are actively involved in child care, and "Bad Dads," men who reject parental responsibilities (Furstenberg, 1988). Why some men are actively involved with their children and others are not is a critical question, given the declining role of men in the family (Furstenberg, 1988; Goldscheider & Kaufman, 1996). The commitment of men to their sex partners and the children they father has serious consequences not only for women and children but also for men. Nonmarital births in particular have been linked to health risks and poverty among women and children as well as poverty among unmarried fathers (Brown & Eisenberg, 1995; Da Vanzo & Rahman, 1993; Nock, 1998; Stier & Tienda, 1994; Zill & Nord, 1994).
The role of men in family formation has largely been overlooked in contemporary research, given that women physically bear children and that child rearing has historically been considered the domain of women. Increasingly, the critical role men play in family formation is being recognized. Goldscheider and Kaufman (1996), in a review of the literature on men and their role in fertility, asked, "What do we know about how variation in male commitment, involvement-the partner dimension of 'context'-influences fertility-related behavior?" (p. 93). Their answer? Very few studies even consider the question.
Past studies of family formation in the United States have been based almost entirely on surveys of women, in part because the reporting of fertility by men is generally considered flawed: Men tend to underreport fertility. Researchers have concluded that the additional information provided by men in general does not warrant the cost of surveying both groups (Cherlin, Griffith, & McCarthy, 1983; Morgan, 1985). However, the demand for data on the fertility of men has increased recently because of the growth of out-of-wedlock childbearing, marital disruption, and public assistance programs that require the identification of fathers for child support payments (Bachu, 1996). If the intent of research is primarily to calculate precise rates, then the study of women is preferable. If, however, the intent is to understand men's family formation patterns and subsequent participation in parenting, then the study of men is essential (Bianchi, 1998; Brown & Eisenberg, 1995; Goldscheider & Kaufman, 1996; Moore, 1995).
Most of what is known about the fertility-related behavior of men is based on studies of adolescents. Moore (1995), in a report to Congress, reviewed research on out-of-wedlock childbearing and noted that considerable research has been done on adolescent childbearing, but much less is known about the fertility- and marital-related behaviors of adults. She concluded that because most research on nonmarital childbearing has focused on adolescents and women, further research is needed, in particular to understand the role of adult men in family formation. Similarly, Bianchi (1998), in her introduction to a recent special issue of Demography entitled "Men in Families," emphasized the need for more research on men's involvement in contraceptive and childbearing decision making. Thus, further study of the processes leading to family formation and the early involvement of young men in parenting is needed. To date, previous research has focused largely on the participation of men in families generally but has given little attention to the processes leading to the formation of families and to how men define their role as fathers, particularly men in nonmarital unions (Blankenhorn, 1995; Furstenberg, 1988; Gerson, 1993; Goldscheider & Waite, 1991; Marsiglio, 1995). The purpose of this review, therefore, is twofold: (a) to summarize the primary literature on the role of adult men in family formation and (b) to outline a potential framework for future research. Because the primary aim of the literature review is to present a potential research model and to identify major gaps, it should not be considered comprehensive.

Foster, L. K. G., Peg (2004). Fathers' Impact on Children's Nutrition, California Research Bureau.
	EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 
In California, one out of every four children is classified as overweight or likely to become overweight. Obesity exacts high costs to the psychological and physical health of individuals who are overweight. In addition, it leads to high medical costs for society to treat the related health conditions such as cardiovascular disease, cancer and diabetes. As a result, nutrition enhancement and obesity prevention have become primary targets of health policy efforts at both the national and state levels. 
Most child nutrition-related research and programs focus on mothers as the primary influence on children's eating habits. To date there has been little research on the relationship between fathers and children relating to nutrition in spite of the role changes brought about by recent trends in divorce, single-parenthood, and joint custody. In order to examine this aspect of father/child relationships, the California Department of Health Services, Cancer Prevention and Nutrition Section provided funds to the California Research Bureau (CRB) for a qualitative community research project. As part of the project, CRB convened a series of focus groups with fathers of young children. The groups discussed child nutrition, meal planning, shopping for and preparing food, and resources available to families in need of food. This report includes the information gathered in the focus groups as well as descriptions and findings from some of the relevant research. 
The focus groups revealed that fathers face many of the same problems documented in research on mothers and children when it comes to what their children eat. Frozen and processed foods such as pizza and corn dogs were favorites among many of the children as were Mexican dishes like burritos and tacos. Vegetables were not high on many of the children's lists of favorites. The focus groups included many fathers who understood the importance of good nutrition and made an effort to cook balanced meals for their children. On the other hand, the fathers interviewed suffered the typical problems faced by single parents and couples who work long hours and have children with busy schedules. Time available for cooking is limited. Fast food filled-in for home cooked meals on occasions when the family was particularly rushed. 
When asked about resources available to families who ran out of money to purchase food, many fathers spoke of "making do" with what was available. Some focus group fathers said they thought that families would cut back on other expenses, buy cheaper food, borrow food, find a second job, or otherwise "find a way" to feed their families when they were short on money for food. Some said families would likely eat less food and eat less healthy food. Some fathers were aware of government programs although several thought that men would not take advantage of these resources due to pride or cultural issues. When the WIC (Special Supplemental Program for Women, Infants, and Children) program was raised, several fathers asked the focus group leader if men were eligible to apply, a valid question given the name of the program. 
Based on research and input from the focus groups, the report offers several options for policy-makers that focus on targeting and outreach to fathers for current programs for which they are eligible. It also suggests exploring the feasibility of adding fathers as eligible applicants for current child nutrition programs that are restricted to mothers.

Foster, L. W. and L. J. McLellan (2002). "Translating psychosocial insight into ethical discussions supportive of families in end-of-life decision-making." Social Work in Health Care 35(3): 37-51.
	A large number of Americans would rather rely on family and friends more than their physicians about end-of-life care and decisions. Moving beyond traditional clinical ethics and its dyadic focus on the physician-patient relationship, this article presents an approach to ethical decision-making at the end of life that is more inclusive of the patient's family and has the potential to advance social work practice in end-of- life care. Initial attention is given to how psychosocial and bioethical perspectives and practices interact to shape understanding of moral issues in end-of-life decisions. Morally relevant principles are then adapted from contextual therapy as being useful for including more of a family focus and viewing ethical decision-making at the end of life as a family process. Specifically, focus is on exploring the ethical dynamics of family systems that impact the decision-making process and translating psychosocial insight into ethical discussions that are supportive of families. The case of a patient with sudden and unexpected brain death and without advance directives demonstrates one family's unresolved grief and illustrates how its members were helped to reason morally about end-of-life choices. Contributions of a social worker and bioethicist are illustrated. (C) 2002 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved

Fox, M. K., K. Reidy, et al. (2006). "Sources of energy and nutrients in the diets of infants and toddlers." Journal of the American Dietetic Association 106(1): S28-S42.
	
Frampton, E. (2004). "Fluid objects: Kleinian, psychoanalytic theory and breast feeding narratives." Australian Feminist Studies 19(45): 357-368.
	
Francis, L. A. and L. L. Birch (2005). "Maternal weight status modulates the effects of restriction on daughters' eating and weight." International Journal of Obesity 29(8): 942-949.
	OBJECTIVE: To examine the effects of overweight and normal-weight mothers' restriction in child feeding on daughters' eating in the absence of hunger (EAH) and body mass index (BMI) change from age 5 to age 9 y. DESIGN: Longitudinal study of the health and development of young girls. SUBJECTS: A total of 91 overweight and 80 normal-weight mothers and their daughters, assessed when daughters were ages 5, 7, and 9 y. MEASUREMENTS: Measures included maternal restriction of daughters' intake at age 5 y, and daughters' EAH and BMI change from age 5 to 9 y. RESULTS: There were no overall differences in the level of restriction that overweight and normal-weight mothers used. However, overweight mothers' restrictive feeding practices when daughters were age 5 y predicted daughters' EAH over time, and higher EAH scores were associated with greater BMI change from age 5 to 9 y. These relationships did not hold for daughters of normal-weight mothers. CONCLUSION: More adverse effects of restriction on daughters' EAH, and links between EAH and BMI change were only noted among daughters of overweight mothers. These findings highlight the need for a better understanding of factors that contribute to within-group variation in eating behavior and weight status.

Francis, L. A., S. M. Hofer, et al. (2001). "Predictors of maternal child-feeding style: maternal and child characteristics." Appetite 37(3): 231-243.
	We investigated relationships among maternal and child characteristics. and two aspects of maternal child-feeding styles that may place daughters at risk for developing problems with energy balance, Participants included 104 overweight (BMI greater than or equal to 25) and 92 non-overweight (BMI < 25) mothers and their 5-year-old. non-Hispanic, White daughters, Child-Feeding styles included (a) restriction of daughters' intake of energy-dense snack food, and (b) pressure to cat more food. Predictors of child-feeding styles included measures of (1) maternal investment in weight and eating issues. including dietary restraint and weight concern., (2) child adiposity, (3) maternal perceptions of the child as underweight or overweight, and (4) maternal concern for child weight. Mothers reported using more restrictive feeding practices when they were invested in weight and eating issues, when they perceived daughters as overweight, when they were concerned about daughters' weight, and when daughters were heavier. Mothers reported using more pressure in child feeding when daughters were thinner, and when mothers perceived daughters as underweight. Further analyses examined whether relationships among child-feeding styles were different for overweight and non-overweight mothers. Overweight mothers' child-feeding styles appeared to be influenced by observable child weight characteristics, concerns for the child's weight status, and mothers' own history of overweight. Non-overweight mothers' child-feeding styles appeared to be influenced by distorted perceptions of and concerns for children, as well as distorted self-perceptions. (C) 2001 Academic Press.

Frederick, S. A. (2001). "Housewives, Modern Girls, Feminists: Women's Magazines and Modernity in Japan." DAI 61(10): 4001-A.
	
Friedman, B. D. "No Place Like Home: A Study of Two Homeless Shelters."
	Explores the operations of 2 adult homeless shelters to understand how they address the problem of homelessness, drawing on case records, participant observation, & interviews with 14 guests & 4 staff members. Two types of services are identified: house & home. House services provided basic food, shelter, & linkage to social services, which fulfilled the basic definition of the problem of homelessness. Home services provided the basic services of house but also went one step beyond by providing these services within the context of a supportive environment, thus creating informal social supports. Discussed are implications of each of these modalities in addressing the problems associated with the homeless as well as the differences in policies & structures that contribute to one shelter providing house, & the other home, services. 3 Tables, 101 References. Adapted from the source document.

Frohlich, J. (2002). "Obesity in pregnancy." MIDIRS 12(1): 39-43.
	
Frosh, S., A. Phoenix, et al. (2002). Young masculinities : understanding boys in contemporary society. Basingstoke, Palgrave.
	
Fuller, T. L., K. Backett-Milburn, et al. (2003). "Healthy eating: the views of general practitioners and patients in Scotland." American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 77(4): 1043S-1047S.
	Background: Scotland has one of the poorest health records of all Western countries, and this has been linked to poor diet. A key part of efforts to improve health has been an action plan to improve the Scottish diet. General practice has been identified as an important setting for health promotion and the provision of healthy eating advice. Objective: The objective was to investigate the views of general practitioners (GPs) and their patients about healthy eating and the provision of healthy eating advice in general practice. Design: This qualitative research study used semistructured in-depth interviews with 15 general practitioners (8 female and 7 male) and 30 patients (15 married couples in social class 3, 4, or 5 with young children). Results: The study found that health was only one priority in patients' everyday lives and that these patients were also questioning the relevance of healthy eating advice. GPs were divided in their opinions, with greater enthusiasm being displayed by the younger and female doctors. However, despite their differing views, GPs felt that general practice was better suited to specific rather than general health advice. Conclusions: If programs in general practice to address dietary inequalities are to succeed, both patients' views and GPs' views must be taken into account.

Furness, B. W., P. A. Simon, et al. "Prevalence and predictors of food insecurity among low-income households in Los Angeles County."
	OBJECTIVES: To assess the prevalence and identify the predictors of food insecurity among households in Los Angeles County with incomes below 300% of the federal poverty level. METHODS: The Six-Item Short Form of the US Department of Agriculture's Household Food Security Scale was used as part of a 1999 county-wide, population-based, telephone survey. RESULTS: The prevalence of food insecurity was 24.4% and was inversely associated with household income. Other independent predictors of food insecurity included the presence of children in the household (odds ratio (OR) 1.7, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.2-2.3) and a history of homelessness in the past five years (OR 5.6, 95% CI 3.4-9.4). CONCLUSION: Food insecurity is a significant public health problem among low-income households in Los Angeles County. Food assistance programmes should focus efforts on households living in and near poverty, those with children, and those with a history of homelessness.

Furness, B. W., P. A. Simon, et al. "Prevalence and predictors of food insecurity among low-income households in Los Angeles County."
	OBJECTIVES: To assess the prevalence and identify the predictors of food insecurity among households in Los Angeles County with incomes below 300% of the federal poverty level. METHODS: The Six-Item Short Form of the US Department of Agriculture's Household Food Security Scale was used as part of a 1999 county-wide, population-based, telephone survey. RESULTS: The prevalence of food insecurity was 24.4% and was inversely associated with household income. Other independent predictors of food insecurity included the presence of children in the household (odds ratio (OR) 1.7, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.2-2.3) and a history of homelessness in the past five years (OR 5.6, 95% CI 3.4-9.4). CONCLUSION: Food insecurity is a significant public health problem among low-income households in Los Angeles County. Food assistance programmes should focus efforts on households living in and near poverty, those with children, and those with a history of homelessness.

Furst, T., M. Connors, et al. (1996). "Food choice: a conceptual model of the process." Appetite 26: 247-266.
	
Gallagher, K., A. Stanley, et al. (2005). "Challenges in data collection, analysis, and distribution of information in community coalition demonstration projects."  37(3): S53-S60.
	Purpose: This article summarizes the experiences of 13 grantees funded by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention under the Community Coalition Partnership for the Prevention of Teenage Pregnancy in collecting, analyzing, and disseminating data as required under the requirements of this community-based demonstration project. While describing the challenges associated with these activities, this article suggests how future demonstration projects can better support both centralized and locally based data collection and analysis and enhance their usefulness for various audiences. Methods: A multi-method data collection approach was employed that included: (a) a systematic review of semiannual progress reports submitted by the grantees to CDC between 1998 and 2002, (b) telephone interviews with program directors and evaluators and (c) site visits to four of the 13 grantee locations. In all, 46 individuals were interviewed, for an average of 3.5 respondents per grantee site. Data collected for this article focused on three data collection/analysis activities required as part of the Partnership: needs assessments conducted during the planning phase of the project, the collection of cross-site indicator data and project-specific studies. Results: Grantees from the 13 Partnership communities indicated that two of the data collection/analysis requirements (the needs and assets assessments and project-specific studies) were useful and should be included in future demonstration projects. The collection of cross-site indicator data was found to be more challenging. Across all areas of data collection/analysis, the grantees' efforts were complicated by data collection challenges, difficulties conducting studies of local programs, and uncertainties about how local efforts fit with national goals for the demonstration projects. Conclusion: The data collection/analysis activities within the Partnership were viewed by the grantees as being both supportive of project efforts, but also challenging. On the positive side, the presence of community-based evaluators helped the grantees to profile community needs, identify program interventions, provide participant feedback, and track community mobilization efforts. Collection of the cross-site indicator data was difficult for many of the grantees and not always connected to locally determined objectives. The value of these activities can be enhanced in the future if greater attention is given to creating more clearly defined goals at the demonstration project level and to providing guidance on scientifically valid data collection and analysis techniques to maximize the usefulness of local efforts. (c) 2005 Society for Adolescent Medicine. All rights reserved.

Gannon, K. and L. Glover (2005). "Men, masculinity and reproduction." JOURNAL OF REPRODUCTIVE AND INFANT PSYCHOLOGY 23(3): 268-269.
	
Gaskin, I., M. (1987). Babies, Breastfeeding & Bonding. USA, Bergin & Garvey.
	
Gatrell, C. (2005). "Hard labour: the sociology of motherhood and career."
	The number of women who combine motherhood with employment has increased significantly over the past 25 years. At the forefront of this important social change are women who are well qualified (degree level or above) and who are pursuing careers at senior level. Considers how they are treated at home and at work. (Original abstract - amended)

Gavanas, A. (2004). "Domesticating masculinity and masculinizing domesticity in contemporary US fatherhood politics." SOCIAL POLITICS 11(2): 247-266.
	Since the mid-1990s, the U.S. fatherhood responsibility movement has claimed that fathers have become marginalized in the family, with catastrophic societal consequences. In response to this perceived situation, the fatherhood responsibility movement seeks to reestablish the necessity of men in families, constituting fatherhood as specifically male in differentiation from the feminizing connotations of family involvement. However, by masculinizing fatherhood, proponents of responsible fatherhood engage a century-long dilemma at the heart of constructing particularly male versions of parenthood: How do you masculinize domesticity and at the same time domesticate masculinity? The fatherhood responsibility movement deals with this dilemma by converging on three long-standing and overlapping arenas for masculinization: heterosexuality, sport, and religion

Gengler, C. E., M. S. Mulvey, et al. (1999). "A means-end analysis of mothers' infant feeding choices."  18(2): 172-188.
	In this research, the authors focus on the choice of an infant feeding method as a public policy issue and present the results of a qualitative study of mothers' motivations to initiate and terminate breastfeeding. Means-end theory provides a framework for understanding mothers' motivations, and the authors interview 73 mothers using a qualitative technique called "laddering." The results of this study could hell, improve promotional campaigns and training programs by reinforcing the benefits of breastfeeding. This may encourage more mothers to breastfeed, as well as reinforce the efforts of women already breastfeeding to continue during this stressful and demanding time. Marketing strategies and public policy programs must be directed toward preventing pre,nature discontinuation that deprives many infants of the fill benefits of breastfeeding.

Geraghty, S. R., S. M. Pinney, et al. (2004). "Breast milk feeding rates of mothers of multiples compared to mothers of singletons."  4(3): 226-231.
	Objective.-Over 3% of infants born annually in the United States are from a multiple gestation pregnancy, yet there is little data published about the feeding practices of their mothers. The objectives of this study were to determine and compare the rates of breast milk feeding of mothers of multiples and mothers of singletons. Methods.-Stratified random sampling (n = 686) on the basis of plurality of pregnancy and gestational age at delivery was performed on a 1999 birth certificate database in the greater Cincinnati area. We collected information about infant feeding during the first 6 months of life using a retrospective, self-administered questionnaire and phone interview from mothers of term singletons (TS), preterm singletons (PS), term multiples (TM), and preterm multiples (PM). Data were analyzed using chi-square and logistic or multiple regression. Results.-We obtained feeding information from 346 mothers (n = 81 TS, 80 PS, 90 TM, and 95 PM). By 3 days postpartum, PM provided breast milk less often than all other groups: TS = 69%, PS = 66%, TM = 73%, PM = 57% (P = .035). Among mothers who initiated breast milk feeding, the geometric mean duration of at least some breast milk feeding was significantly shorter for PM than for all other groups: TS = 23 weeks, PS = 19 weeks, TM = 24 weeks, and PM = 12 weeks (P = .002). Conclusions.-Further evaluation of the potential causes for the lower breast milk feeding rates among PM is needed to develop effective intervention strategies and increase the number of preterm multiple gestation infants receiving breast milk.

Germov, J. and L. Williams (1999). A sociology of food and nutrition : the social appetite. South Melbourne, Vic. ; Oxford, Oxford University Press.
	
Giard, L. (1980). Doing Cooking. The Everyday Life Reader. B. Highmore. London, Routledge.
	
Gibson, E. L., J. Wardle, et al. (1998). "Fruit and vegetable consumption, nutritional knowledge and beliefs in mothers and children." Appetite 31(2): 205-228.
	Increasing fruit and vegetable consumption is an important health behaviour. Parental and other psychosocial influences on children's fruit and vegetable consumption are poorly understood. The contribution of a variety of psychosocial and environmental factors to consumption of fruit and vegetables by children aged 9-11 years was explored. Ninety-two mothers and children (48 girls and 44 boys) were recruited via urban primary health-care practices. Socio-economic and educational level, nutritional knowledge and health- and diet-related beliefs and attitudes were assessed in mothers and children by questionnaires and semistructured interviews. Mothers' diets were measured by a food frequency questionnaire, while children's diets were assessed by 3-day diaries (N = 80). The pattern of influence of the various measures on fruit and vegetable consumption was compared with that on children's confectionery intake. The children's intakes of macronutrients were typical for the U.K. (37% fat, 50% carbohydrate and 13% protein by energy; 12 g/day fibre), while median fruit, fruit juice and vegetable intake amounted to about 2.5 servings/day. Univariate correlations and subsequent multiple regression analyses revealed quite different influences on the three food types. Independent predictors of children's fruit intake included mothers' nutritional knowledge (beta = 0.37), mothers' frequency of fruit consumption (beta = 0.30) and mothers' attitudinal conviction that increasing fruit and vegetable consumption by their children could reduce their risk of developing cancer (beta = 0.27; multiple r2 = 0.37, p < 0.0001). Children's vegetable consumption was independently explained by the child's liking for commonly eaten vegetables (beta = 0.36) and the mother's belief in the importance of disease prevention when choosing her child's food (beta = -0.27; r2 = 0.20, p < 0.001). Children's confectionery consumption was predicted by the mother's liking for confectionery (beta = 0.32) and the children's concern for health in choosing what to eat (beta = -0.26; r2 = 0.16, p < 0.005). Children's consumption of fruit and vegetables are related to different psychosocial and environmental factors. Promotion of this behaviour may require attention to nutritional education and child feeding strategies of parents.

Gibson, E. L., J. Wardle, et al. (1998). "Fruit and vegetable consumption, nutritional knowledge and beliefs in mothers and children."  31(2): 205-228.
	Increasing fruit and vegetable consumption is an important health behaviour. Parental and other psychosocial influences on children's fruit and vegetable consumption are poorly understood. The contribution of a variety of psychosocial and environmental factors to consumption of fruit and vegetables by children aged 9-11 years was explored. Ninety-two mothers and children (48 girls and 44 boys) were recruited via urban primary health-care practices. Socio-economic and educational level, nutritional knowledge and health- and diet-related beliefs and attitudes were assessed in mothers and children by questionnaires and semistructured interviews. Mothers' diets were measured by a food frequency questionnaire, while children's diets were assessed by 3-day diaries (N = 80). The pattern of influence of the various measures on fruit and vegetable consumption was compared with that on children's confectionery intake. The children's intakes of macronutrients were typical for the U.K. (37% fat, 50% carbohydrate and 13% protein by energy; 12 g/day fibre), while median fruit, fruit juice and vegetable intake amounted to about 2.5 servings/day. Univariate correlations and subsequent multiple regression analyses revealed quite different influences on the three food types. Independent predictors of children's fruit intake included mothers nutritional knowledge (beta = 0.37), mothers' frequency of fruit consumption (beta = 0.30) and mothers' attitudinal conviction that increasing fruit and vegetable consumption by their children could reduce their risk of developing cancer (beta = 0.27; multiple beta = 0.37, p<0.0001). Children's vegetable consumption was independently explained by the child's liking for commonly eaten vegetables (beta = 0.36) and the mother's belief in the importance of disease prevention when choosing her child's food (beta = - 0.27; r(2) = 0.20, p<0.001). Children's confectionery consumption was predicted by the mother's liking for confectionery (beta=0.32) and the children's concern for health in choosing what to eat (beta =-0.26, r(2) = 0.16, p<0.005). Children's consumption of fruit and vegetables are related to different psychosocial and environmental factors. Promotion of this behaviour may require attention to nutritional education and child feeding strategies of parents. (C) 1998 Academic Press.

Gibson, E. L., J. Wardle, et al. (1998). "Fruit and vegetable consumption, nutritional knowledge and beliefs in mothers and children." Appetite 31(2): 205-228.
	Increasing fruit and vegetable consumption is important health behaviour. Parental and other psychosocial influences on children's fruit and vegetable consumption are poorly understood. The contribution of a variety of psychosocial and environmental factors to consumption of fruit and vegetables by children aged 9-11 years was explored. Ninety-two mothers and children (48 girls and 44 boys) were recruited via urban primary health-care practices. Socio-economic and educational level, nutritional knowledge and health- and diet-related beliefs and attitudes were assessed in mothers and children by questionnaires and semistructured interviews. Mothers>> diets were measured by a food frequency questionnaire, while children's diets were assessed by 3-day diaries (N=80). The pattern of influence of the various measures on fruit and vegetable consumption was compared with that on children's confectionery intake. The children's intakes of macronutrients were typical for the U.K. (37% fat, 50% carbohydrate and 13% protein by energy; 12 g/day fibre), while median fruit, fruit juice and vegetable intake amounted to about 2.5 servings/day. Univariate correlations and subsequent multiple regression analyses revealed quite different influences on the three food types. Independent predictors of children's fruit intake included mothers>> nutritional knowledge (beta=0.37), mothers>> frequency of fruit consumption (beta=0.30) and mothers>> attitudinal conviction that increasing fruit and vegetable consumption by their children could reduce their risk of developing cancer (beta=0.27; multiple r2=0.37,p<0.0001). Children's vegetable consumption was independently explained by the child's liking for commonly eaten vegetables (beta=0.36) and the mother's belief in the importance of disease prevention when choosing her child's food (beta=-0.27 r2=0.20,p<0.001). Children's confectionery consumption was predicted by the mother's liking for confectionery (beta=0.32) and the children's concern for health in choosing what to eat (beta=-0.26 r2=0.16, p<0.005). Children's consumption of fruit and vegetables are related to different psychosocial and environmental factors. Promotion of this behaviour may require attention to nutritional education and child feeding strategies of parents.

Giddens, A. (1998). The Third Way: the renewal of social democracy. Cambridge:, Polity Press.
	
Gijsbers, B., I. Mesters, et al. (2005). "Factors influencing breastfeeding practices and postponement of solid food to prevent allergic disease in high-risk children: results from an explorative study."  57(1): 15-21.
	This paper presents results of seven focus group interviews conducted to gain insight into the feelings, opinions and perceived barriers of parents with a history of asthma who have recently delivered a child. The parents participated in an educational program regarding breastfeeding and postponement of solid food to prevent their child from developing allergic symptoms. Breastfeeding exclusively for 6 months seemed an advice difficult to follow. The most important influencing factors regarding initiation and continuation of breastfeeding were health advantages for the baby, bonding, social support, modelling, knowledge about all the aspects of breastfeeding and breastfeeding confidence. In general, parents adhered to the advice to postpone solid food until the child had reached the age of 6 years. The few obstacles revealed were social pressure, hungry babies and eagerness of parents to give solid food. (c) 2004 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

Gilbert, E. D. (2005). "The surprising power of family meals: How eating together makes us smarter, stronger, healthier, and happier."  130(14): 164-164.
	
Gilbert, T. (2001). "Reflective Practice and clinical supervision: meticulous rituals of the confessional,." Journal of Advanced Nursing, 36(2): 199-205.
	
Gill, G. K. "Gender Roles, Negotiations and Coping Strategies: A Qualitative Study of Two-Income Couples."
	Data obtained via in-depth interviews & structured questionnaires from 35 two-income couples with children in Australia are drawn on to explore the ideology of gender roles, negotiations, & strategies employed by such couples to cope with the demand of housework. Analysis reveals variations in gender-role ideology: 33% of the couples felt that ideally, only the husband should be the main provider, whereas the remainder supported either spouse in the provider role. In actual practice, however, husbands & wives performed their roles as providers & contributors, respectively. Although housework was perceived as a shared responsibility, wives performed a majority of the household tasks. A seven-step model based on the process of negotiation as one typical coping strategy by husbands & wives during the housework performance is developed. Results confirm & extend the existing dichotomy of gender relations (masculine-feminine & provider-nurturer roles) to provider-contributor & helper-accountable roles. 1 Table, 1 Figure, 24 References. Adapted from the source document.

Gillies, P. (1998). "Effectiveness of Alliances and Partnerships for Health Promotion,." Health Promotion International 13((2):): 99-120.
	
Gillies, V. (2005). "Meeting parents needs?" Critical Social Policy 25(1): 70-90.
	
Gillman, M. W., S. L. Rifas-Shiman, et al. (2006). "Breast-feeding and overweight in adolescence." Epidemiology 17(1): 112-114.
	
Gillon, E. J. (1997). Men's Talk about Food: A Discourse Analysis. Buckingham, Open University.
	
Giullari, S. and M. Shaw (2005). "Supporting or controlling? New Labour's housing strategy for         teenage parents
10.1177/0261018305054078." Critical Social Policy 25(3): 402-417.
	Teenage pregnancy has been the subject of much attention in recent social policy, including a particular strategy for supported housing for teenage parents. The issue  of support, both formal and from family, is central to this endeavour, and problematic. In this paper we unravel New Labour's construction of teenage parents' housing need as an issue of isolation from support. First we focus on family support, and argue that New Labour's supported housing strategy ignores its fragile and individualized nature and thus puts it in jeopardy. We then disentangle the discourse of welfare dependency that underpins this strategy and show that its disregard for teenage parents' need for independent  housing and capacity for autonomous living says more about the wish to control those teenage parents that New Labour perceives most at risk of welfare dependency than it  does about a genuine desire to support them. We conclude that a right to independent housing is key to a strategy that genuinely aims to support teenage parents.

Glasser, C. K. (1997). "Patriarchy, Mediated Desire, and Chinese Magazine Fiction." Journal of Communication 47(1): 85-108.
	Examines the fictional writings found in three Chinese women's magazines from 1961 to 1991 to analyze the relationship between social change and mass media using a feminist viewpoint. The author notes that the repression of the worker of the 1960's was replaced by domestic images of wives and mothers after the modernization policies of the 1970's.

Golan, M. and S. Crow (X2004). "Parents are key players in the prevention and treatment of weight-related problems." Nutrition Reviews. 62(1): 39-50.
	There is growing agreement among experts that an obesogenic environment, which encourage excess food intake and idealizes thinness, plays a crucial role in the epidemic of childhood obesity and eating disorders. Because parents provide a child's contextual environment, they should be considered key players in interventions aimed at preventing or treating weight-related problems. Parenting style and feeding style are crucial factors in fostering healthy lifestyle and awareness of internal hunger and satiety cues and de-emphasizing thinness. Effective interventions for prevention and treatment of weight-related problems should be approached from a health-centered rather than a weight-centered perspective, with the parents as central agents of change. This paper reviews the environmental risk factors and parents' role in the prevention and treatment of children's weight-related problems. [References: 128]

Goldscheider, F. K. (2000). "Men, children and the future of the family in the third millennium." Futures 32(6): 525-538.
	This paper examines the effects of demographic change on the foundations of the family. The "first" demographic transition - the massive declines in fertility and mortality - is shown to have undermined the traditional male-female relationship based on parenthood. This has led to the gender revolution in the public sphere. The "second" demographic transition the increases in divorce and cohabitation - is shown to have undermined the father-child relationship, reflecting women's control over children, a control that increased continually during the first demographic transition. This paper argues that the gender revolution needs to be brought into the family, increasing women's ability to compete in employment and men's ability both to choose whether to assume parental responsibility and to maintain active parental roles with their children.

Goody, J. (1982). Cooking, cuisine and class : a study in comparative sociology. Cambridge [Cambridgeshire] ; New York, Cambridge University Press.
	
Goody, J. (1982). Cooking, Cuisine and Class: A Comparative Studies Reader. Cambridge, CUP.
	
Goody, J. (1989). "Cooking and the polarization of social theory. SYMPOSIUM REVIEW ON "Cooking, cuisine and class"." Food and Foodways 3(3): 203-221.
	
Googins, B. K. a. R., S. A. (2000). "Creating the Partnership Society: Understanding the Rhetoric and the Reality of  Cross-sectorial Partnerships',." Business and Society Review 105(1): 127-44.
	
Gorsuch, A. E. (1996). "A Woman Is Not a Man : the Culture of Gender and Generation in Soviet Russia, 1921-1928." Slavic Review 55(3): 636-660.
	Discusses the ways young women in Russia after 1921 operated on the periphery of the Komosomol, which was supposed to liberate women from the oppressed capitalist system of childcare, cooking, and cleaning to equality in economic, marital, civil, and sexual rights. Although relationships between men and women changed after the 1918 Bolshevik code on Marriage, the Family, and Guardianship, conditions of economic deprivation reinforced traditional gender roles. Household needs were primarily entrusted to women, whereas men escaped responsibility. As a result, men had an easier time joining political and cultural organizations. Parents often did not see the need for daughters to be politically active instead of completing household responsibilities. In reality, an attempt to achieve a policy of "different but equal" gave way to stereotypical relations.

Gosselink, C. A., E. E. Ekwo, et al. (1992). "Dietary Habits, Prepregnancy Weight, and Weight-Gain During Pregnancy - Risk of Preterm Rupture of Amniotic Sac Membranes."  71(6): 425-438.
	Background: Premature rupture of amniotic sac membranes (PROM) is associated with perinatal morbidity and mortality. A matched case-control study was undertaken to determine whether dietary habits, prepregnancy weight, and weight gain during pregnancy were associated with increased risks for PROM. Methods: Three study groups were defined, consisting of women delivering pre term with PROM (PP), full term with PROM (FP), and pre term without PROM (PWP). Cases were singly matched by race, age, and parity with women having full term deliveries without PROM. Data were collected by face-to-face structured interviews with eligible subjects and by medical records abstraction. Results: Conditional multiple logistic regression indicated that during pregnancy, PP cases were significantly more likely to have gained < 21 pounds (9.5 kg) (OR = 2.7, CI = 1.14-6.36) and were only half as likely as controls to have improved their diet (OR = 0.43, CI = 0.18-0.99) while controlling for cigarette smoking, urinary tract infection, chorioamnionitis, chlamydia, and a history of previous PROM. FP cases were significantly less likely than controls to have gained 31-40 pounds (14-18 kg) while pregnant (OR = 0.56, CI = 0.33-0.94) and were significantly more likely than controls to have a somewhat inadequate pregnancy diet (OR = 2.05, CI = 1.11-3.77) while controlling for a history of previous PROM. PWP cases were significantly less likely to have gained 31-40 pounds (14-18 kg) (OR = 0.42, CI = 0.21-0.84) or > 40 pounds (18 kg) (OR = 0.37, CI = 0.17-0.80) while pregnant or to have had adequate dairy products intake (OR = 0.60, CI = 0.36-0.99) while controlling for cigarette usage. Conclusion: Maternal dietary habits, weight gain during pregnancy, and supplement intake are associated with the occurrence of both pre term and full term PROM and pre term delivery without PROM.

Gough-Yates, A. (2003). Understanding women's magazines : publishing, markets and readerships. London, Routledge.
	
Graffy, J. and J. Taylor (2005). "What information, advice, and support do women want with breastfeeding?" Birth: Issues in Perinatal Care 32(3): 179-186.
	Background: Breastfeeding conveys many benefits, but women often encounter difficulties in the first few weeks. The objective of this study was to examine women's perspectives on the information, advice, and support they receive with breastfeeding. Methods: A qualitative analysis was conducted of women's responses to open questions about their experiences of breastfeeding support. Participants were recruited as part of a randomized controlled trial of additional support from volunteer breastfeeding counselors, and they completed questionnaires when their babies were 6 weeks old. Results: Of the 720 women recruited to the trial, 654 began breastfeeding and completed postnatal questionnaires; 492 (75%) participants were first-time mothers and 200 (31%) were of minority ethnic origin. At 6 weeks, 249 (38%) women were exclusively breastfeeding, 183 (28%) were both breastfeeding and bottle-feeding, whereas 222 (34%) were exclusively bottle-feeding. Although many women commented positively on their experiences, others thought they did not receive the information and support they needed. Thematic analysis of women's responses to open questions identified five components of the support that women wanted: information about breastfeeding and what to expect, practical help with positioning the baby to breastfeed, effective advice and suggestions, acknowledgment of mothers' experiences and feelings, and reassurance and encouragement. Conclusions: Maternity services should address the components identified by the study findings as constituting good breastfeeding support. Guidance and information for family members and training for those involved in peer or professional initiatives should take into account women's views on what support they want, together with when and how they want it provided. (Original abstract)

Graffy, J., J. Taylor, et al. (2004). "Randomised controlled trial of support from volunteer counsellors for mothers considering breast feeding." British Medical Journal 328(7430): 26-29.
	
Graffy, J. P. (1992). "Mothers Attitudes to and Experience of Breast-Feeding - a Primary Care Study."  42(355): 61-64.
	This study investigated the attitudes to breast feeding of women registered with 24 general practitioners in Nottingham. A total of 514 women were interviewed in the antenatal period and then followed up at six weeks and six months after the birth of their child. Seventy per cent of the women planned to breast feed their baby, 23% planned to bottle feed and 7% were undecided. Only 26 women changed their plans. Although 73% of the women interviewed began breast feeding, this had fallen to 49% by six weeks and 26% by six months. Logistic regression analysis showed that multiparae who had bottle fed or stopped breast feeding their previous child during the first six weeks were 5.15 times more likely to stop breast feeding in the first six weeks, than those who had breast fed their previous child for six weeks or more. Primiparae in social classes 3M, 4 or 5 or who were unemployed were 3.68 times more likely to stop than women in higher social classes, while those who said they had considered bottle feeding were 2.40 times more likely to stop. Most women gave an inadequate milk supply as a reason for stopping, but sore nipples were also a problem in the first six weeks. Of all the women who had started breast feeding 46% felt they did not have enough milk at some stage and despite the finding that 49% of those who sought advice from a health professional were advised to feed more often, 42% said they had been advised to give bottle feeds. The primary care team is likely to be more effective in promoting breast feeding if it concentrates on trying to help those women who want to breast feed. This study has shown how those women who are most likely to have difficulties can be targeted during the antenatal period, allowing the primary care team to make a greater contribution to helping women breast feed.

Graham-Jones, S., S. Reilly, et al. "Tackling the Needs of the Homeless: A Controlled Trial of Health Advocacy."
	The objective of the present study was to assess the effectiveness of a health advocate's casework with homeless people in a primary care setting in terms of improvements in health-related quality of life (QoL). The impact of the health advocacy intervention was assessed in a quasi-experimental, three-armed controlled trial. Homeless people moving into hostels or other temporary accommodation in the Liverpool 8 area of the UK & patients registering at an inner-city health center as temporary residents were allocated in alternating periods to health advocacy (with or without outreach registration) or 'usual care' over a total intake period of 3 years. Health-related QoL outcomes were assessed using three independent self-report measures: the Life Fulfilment Scale; the Delighted-Terrible Faces Scale; & the Nottingham Health Profile. Out of the 326 homeless people who were given baseline questionnaires at registration, 222 (68%) returned usable questionnaires. Out of these individuals, 171 (77.0%) were traceable at follow up, & 117 (68.4%) follow-up questionnaires were returned. The majority of respondents (n = 117) were women (72%) who were under 30 years of age (74%), white British (91%), & single (63%) or separated (23%), many of whom were living with their children (41%) in either women's refuges (30%) or family hostels (25%). Improvements in health-related QoL were greatest in people recruited & supported by a health advocate early in their stay in temporary housing, in comparison with those in the control group given 'usual care' at the health centre. The model of streamlined care for patients with complex psychosocial needs is shown to be a worthwhile & effective option for primary health care providers. 4 Tables, 1 Figure, 1 Box, 55 References. Adapted from the source document.

Granner, M. L., R. G. Sargent, et al. (2004). "Factors of fruit and vegetable intake by race, gender, and age among young adolescents." Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior 36(4): 173-180.
	Objective: To explore demographic differences in individual, social, and environmental factors potentially related to fruit and vegetable intake. 
Design: Self-report questionnaires administered to a convenience sample of middle school students during regular classes.

Participants: Black and white adolescents, 11 to 15 years of age (N = 736).

Variables Measured: Measures included self-efficacy, family dinner frequency, normative beliefs, outcome expectations, modeling, availability, preferences, snack choice, and demographics.

Analysis: Chi-square, general linear models, and Poisson and linear regressions as appropriate.

Results: Black participants reported greater social influences than did white participants, whereas white adolescents reported greater family environmental influences on fruit and vegetable intake. The oldest adolescents reported lower self-efficacy, peer modeling, family dinner frequency, and fruit and vegetable preferences compared with younger adolescents. White participants and females reported a higher preference for vegetables than did black participants and males. Regression models for self-efficacy and snack choice explained 41% and 34% of the variance, respectively. Preferences for vegetables and parental modeling were the strongest correlates of self-efficacy. Self-efficacy was the strongest correlate of snack choice.

Conclusions and Implications: Decreases in several factors with age highlight the importance of intervention for this age group. Future research is needed for a better understanding of the formation and modification of self-efficacy and snack choice.

Graván, M. L. (2005). Readers, storyworlds and the popular public sphere : a comparative analysis of women's magazines in Spain and the UK. Glasgow, Glasgow Caledonian University
Glasgow Caledonian University: 1 v.
	
Green, J., E. Waters, et al. (2003). "Social, cultural and environmental influences on child activity and eating in Australian migrant communities." Child: Care, Health & Development. 29(6): 441-8.
	AIM: This study set out to examine the socio-cultural, familial and environmental factors influencing health, eating habits and patterns of physical activity contributing to child and adolescent overweight and obesity. METHODS: Semi-structured, community-based interviews were conducted with contrasting key informant three-generation families; and generation by generation focus groups of grandparents, parents and children from four cultural communities in the state of Victoria, Australia. Purposive sampling occurred from Turkish, Greek, Indian and Chinese communities that have migrated to Australia within the last three generations (n = 160, eight families, 47 children aged 5-15 years, 29 parents, 42 grandparents). RESULTS: Evidence of two-way influences on eating and physical activity across three generations was evident, with children reporting the greatest cross-cultural diversity. A range of dietary restrictions was reported across all cultural groups. Efforts to foster healthy eating and lifestyle patterns within communities were evident. Parents, as a generation in particular, felt the need for more access to education and support regarding healthy limits for pre-puberty and puberty stages. CONCLUSION: There is a dynamic influence of culture on many aspects of family lifestyle across three generations. To achieve successful intervention design, childhood obesity researchers need to collaborate with diverse groups and communities. Considering the role and influence of extended family, a multigenerational, whole-of-community approach beyond that of parent and child populations ought to be considered.

Greener, I. (2002). "Agency, social theory and social policy,." Critical Social Policy Vol. 22(4): 688-705.
	
Greenfield, G. and C. Reid (1996). Women's magazines and the commercial orchestration of femininity in the 1930s : evidence from Woman's Own, University of Portsmouth, Department of Economics.
	
Greenfield, J., S. O'Connell, et al. (1999). "Fashioning Masculinity: Men Only, Consumption and the Development of Marketing in the 1930s." Twentieth Century British History 10(4): 457-476.
	Men Only, a British men's lifestyle magazine published between 1935 and 1964, attempted to manipulate consumption habits of male readers, as women's magazines had done successfully since the end of World War I. Issues of the magazine between 1935 and 1939 illustrate many attitudes and concerns of British middle-class men during the interwar years. Reacting to an assumed "crisis in masculinity," Men Only attacked in its articles the domestication of British society which women's magazines of the era promoted, adopting a distinctly antifeminist tone in focusing upon male values, pleasures, and fantasies. The articles - mostly about sports, adventure, and the male body - emphasized rugged masculinity. In contrast, Men Only's advertisements often featured consumer goods catering to male anxieties and fears. Both articles and advertisements were pointedly heterosexual in tone.

Greenfield, J. a. R. C. (1998). "Women's Magazines and the Commercial Orchestration of Femininity in the 1930s: Evidence from Woman's Own." Media History 4(2): 161-174.
	The British woman's magazine Woman's Own, started in 1932, fixed on a successful publishing formula that was subsequently copied by other such journals. The magazine's endorsement of domestic ideals and lifestyles is confirmed through a content analysis of magazine issues between 1932 and 1939. The synthesis of these messages within both ads and articles published during this period illustrated the magazine's successful blurring of distinctions between editorial and commercial content. The result was a commercial vision of domesticity that sold extremely well and established a pattern emulated by subsequent periodical imitations.

Grele, R. J. (1998). Movement without aim: methodological and theoretical problems in oral history. The Oral History Reader. R. Perks and A. Thomson. London, Routledge: 38-52.
	
Grieshaber, S. (1997). "Mealtime rituals: power and resistance in the construction of mealtime rules." British Journal of Sociology 48(4): 649-666.
	This paper discusses how child resistance is lived on a daily basis through the construction and operation of mealtime rules in four Australian families with young children. It focuses on the sociologically neglected situation of everyday parent-child conflict and resistance and posits young children as actively engaged in contestation and negotiation of power relationships within the family. Analysis of domestic dialogue and conflict episodes demonstrates how mealtime rituals function as techniques of discipline through which young children are normalized. Although resistance and contestation occurred in all families, the construction and operation of mealtime rules were also a regulatory mechanism for constituting boys and girls in different ways. Girls were constructed as helping to prepare, serve and clean after meals, while boys were the recipients of this service from their mothers and sisters. 

Griffiths, D. M. (2004). "Do tongue ties affect breastfeeding?"  20(4): 409-414.
	This study assessed indications for and safety and outcome of simple division of tongue tie without an anesthetic. There were 215 infants younger than 3 months (mean 0-19 days) who had major problems breastfeeding, despite professional support. Symptoms, tongue tie details, safety of division, and complications were recorded. Feeding was assessed by the mothers immediately, at 24 hours, and 3 months after division. Prior to division, 88% had difficulty latching, 77% of mothers experienced nipple trauma, and 72% had a continuous feeding cycle. During division, 18% slept throughout; 60% cried more after division (mean 0-15 seconds). There were no significant complications. Within 24 hours, 80% were feeding better. Overall, 64% breastfed for at least 3 months (UK national average is 30%). Initial assessment, diagnosis, and help, followed by division and subsequent support by a qualified lactation consultant, might ensure that even more mothers and infants benefit from breastfeeding.

Griffiths, L. J., A. R. Tate, et al. (2005). "The contribution of parental and community ethnicity to breastfeeding practices: evidence from the Millennium Cohort Study." International Journal of Epidemiology 34(6): 1378-1386.
	
Grignon, C. (1986). "Sociology of taste and the Realist novel: Representations of Popular Eating in E. Zola." Food and Foodways 1(2): 117.
	
Groer, M. W. (2005). "Differences between exclusive breastfeeders, formula-feeders, and controls: A study of stress, mood, and endocrine variables." Biological Research for Nursing 7(2): 106-117.
	
Gronow, J. (1993). "What is 'good taste'?" Social Science Information 32(2): 279-301.
	
Groves, D. (2004). "Gob Smacked! Tv Dining in Australia between 1956 and 1966." Journal of Popular Culture 37(3): 409-417.
	The introduction of television into Australian homes in the mid-1950's changed dining habits, leading to more informal lifestyles. Families most often chose the lounge as the room for the television, and this brought dining out of the kitchen and dining room. With the change in eating location came changes in food preparation and new cooking and dining equipment. Magazines of the era instructed women on preparing meals to be taken in front of the television. They also advertised new products, such as vinyl furniture, frozen dinners, tray tables, and plastic dishes, to make television dining easier.

Gundersen, C., L. Weinreb, et al. (2003). "Homelessness and food insecurity." Journal of Housing Economics 12(3): 250-272.
	Numerous assistance programs are designed to alleviate homelessness and food insecurity in the US, two of the more severe possible consequences of poverty. While we expect families with a higher probability of homelessness to also be at higher risk of food insecurity, after controlling for observed factors the relationship is not immediately apparent. To analyze this relationship, we use a unique data set with food insecurity information on both housed and homeless families. After instrumenting for the probability of homelessness, we find that families more prone to homelessness have higher levels of food insecurity. When we use dichotomous measures of food insecurity, however, the effects of homelessness are smaller.

Gustafsson, U. (2002). "School meals policy: the problem with governing
children." Social Policy and Administration 36(6): 685 - 697.
	
Guthrie, J. F., B. M. Derby, et al. What people know and do not know about nutrition.
	
Guthrie Joanne F , B.-H. L., Elizabeth Frazao (2002). "Role of food prepared away from home in the American diet, 1977-78 versus 1994-96: Changes and consequences." Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior 34(3): 140.
	Objective: To examine changes, between 1977-78 and 1994-96, in the quantity and quality of food Americans consumed that was prepared at home versus away from home. Design: Data were obtained from nationwide surveys of food consumption conducted by the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) in 1977-78 and 1994-96. To maximize comparability, we used "day 1" dietary data, which both surveys collected via 24-hour recall. Subjects/Settings: Individuals 2 years of age and over were selected. USDA sampling weights were used to generate nationally representative estimates. Variables Measured: We categorized foods by preparation at home or at restaurants, fast-food establishments, schools/day care, and other non-home locations. We assessed percent calories from total fat and saturated fat, and the cholesterol, sodium, fiber, calcium, and iron densities of foods prepared at home versus those prepared away from home. Statistical Analyses: T tests were calculated using accepted procedures to adjust for survey design effects. Results: Between 1977-78 and 1994-96, consumption of food prepared away from home increased from 18% to 32% of total calories. Meals and snacks based on food prepared away from home contained more calories per eating occasion, and "away" food was higher in total fat and saturated fat on a per-calorie basis than at-home food. "Away" food contained less dietary fiber, calcium, and iron on a per-calorie basis. Among adults but not children, food prepared away from home was more sodium and cholesterol dense.

Guttman, H. A. (2002). "The epigenesis of the family system as a context. for individual development." Family Process 41(3): 533-545.
	In this article, the concept introduced by Lyman Wynne, that the individual develops epigenetically within the family system, is discussed and validated with data from a study of the characteristics and relationships of 27 women with borderline personality disorder and their parents. Each stage of the epigenetic process is impaired in one way or another, adversely affecting subsequent stages. Early impairment of attachment-care-giving processes is at least partly attributable to a lack of empathic parenting, effective communication is marred by family members' inability to experience or express feelings (alexithymia); this, in turn, makes it difficult to engage in joint family problem solving. Mutuality between family members does not occur in such a context, and there is an absence of intimacy between family members. These are often abusive family systems, with multiple abuse and intrafamilial sexual abuse more specifically directed at the daughter with BPD. The symptoms of the daughter can be understood systemically, as representing both predispositional characteristics and reactions to the family system. It is suggested that the epigenetic paradigm could be used to characterize the specific failure of developmental processes in many different disorders

Guttman, N. and D. R. Zimmerman (2000). "Low-income mothers' views on breastfreeding."  50(10): 1457-1473.
	Nourishing infants presents women today with choices, desires, obligations and constraints. Despite mounting evidence about the health, psychosocial and societal benefits of breastfeeding both for women and infants, current breastfeeding rates worldwide are far from optimal, particularly among low-income women. Many mothers choose to use infant formula. Drawing from structured interviews with 154 mothers from an urban low-income multiethnic population in the United States, a typology of mothers' feelings about their infant feeding method is developed. Findings indicate that regardless of their feeding method, mothers tended to attribute higher health benefits to breastfeeding and perceived community norms as probreastfeeding. They differed in their rating and perceptions of logistics and the extent to which benefits mattered in their infant-feeding decision. Contradictions associated with the practice of breastfeeding even among mothers who breastfed, were reflected in their perceptions of social disapproval of breastfeeding in public, reports of ridicule by friends, lack of support from some health providers, and difficulties associated with working. A typology of mothers' emotional states resulting from such contradictions summarizes the findings and underscores how some mothers who did not, but would have liked to breastfeed, may be subjected to feelings of guilt and deprivation. Implications for educational interventions are to amplify prenatal infant feeding consultations and address ways to overcome logistical and apprehension barriers. (C) 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Haapalahti M, M. H., Tikkanen S, Kokkonen J. (2003). "Meal patterns and food use in 10- to 11-year-old Finnish children." PUBLIC HEALTH NUTRITION 6(4): 365-370.
	OBJECTIVE: To describe the meal patterns and food use on weekdays among 10- to 11-year-old Finnish children and to analyse these in relation to family's socio-economic status and the child's behaviour. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study on a cohort of 404 children aged 10-11 years in the rural town of Ylivieska, mid-western Finland. METHODS: A food-frequency questionnaire including questions on meal patterns and food use and the Child Behaviour Checklist (CBCL) completed by the parents and the child together. RESULTS: Practically all children (99%) ate breakfast regularly, 94% had a daily school lunch and 80% had dinner at home daily. Vegetables were consumed daily at home by 26% and fruits or berries by 21%, while 46% of the children had salad daily at school. Twenty-four per cent ate sweets daily or nearly so on weekdays. The children from families of high socio-economic status ate vegetables more often, and fewer of them used butter or high-fat milk. The children with no regular family dinner ate sweets and fast foods more often, and had higher total CBCL problem scores than those with a regular family dinner. CONCLUSION: Skipping meals appears not to be common among Finnish children aged 10-11 years, but a considerable proportion consume sweets frequently and vegetables infrequently. High family socio-economic status and a tendency to eat together are associated with healthy food choices among schoolchildren.

Haas, J. S., R. A. Jackson, et al. (2005). "Changes in the health status of women during and after pregnancy."  20(1): 45-51.
	OBJECTIVE: To characterize the changes in health status experienced by a multi-ethnic cohort of women during and after pregnancy. DESIGN: Observational cohort. SETTING/PARTICIPANTS: Pregnant women from 1 of 6 sites in the San Francisco area (N=1,809). MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Women who agreed to participate were asked to complete a series of telephone surveys that ascertained health status as well as demographic and medical factors. Substantial changes in health status occurred over the course of pregnancy. For example, physical function declined, from a mean score of 95.2 prior to pregnancy to 58.1 during the third trimester (0-100 scale, where 100 represents better health), and improved during the postpartum period (mean score, 90.7). The prevalence of depressive symptoms rose from 11.7% prior to pregnancy to 25.2% during the third trimester, and then declined to 14.2% during the postpartum period. Insufficient money for food or housing and lack of exercise were associated with poor health status before, during, and after pregnancy. CONCLUSIONS: Women experience substantial changes in health status during and after pregnancy. These data should guide the expectations of women, their health care providers, and public policy.

Haider, S. J., A. Jacknowitz, et al. (2003). "Welfare work requirements and child well-being: Evidence from the effects on breast-feeding." Demography 40(3): 479-497.
	
Hall, A. S. (2003). "Expanding academic and career self-efficacy: A family systems framework." Journal of Counseling and Development 81(1): 33-39.
	This article presents 2 theories useful to school counselors: self-efficacy and family systems. The author advocates the use of a family-sensitive model when counseling individuals that recognizes and respects the individual's membership in a family culture. Self-efficacy and family systems interventions for academic and career development are demonstrated in the hope that individual identities in relation to family identities will be strengthened so that youth can access family legacies as they consider their academic and career options

Hallawell, S. M. Women's glossy magazines: 118leaves.
	
Hallbauer, U., J. M. Grobler, et al. (2002). "Factors influencing a mother's choice of feeding after discharge of her baby from a neonatal unit."  92(8): 634-637.
	Objective. To assess feeding methods chosen by mothers of babies who spent time in a neonatal unit. Factors influencing this decision were investigated. Design. Descriptive study. Methods. Mothers were interviewed on the day they took their babies home. Basic demographic data on mother and baby were collected from the hospital records. Setting. The neonatal unit, Pelonomi Hospital, Bloemfontein from May 1996 to May 1998. Subjects. Eighty-one mothers of babies admitted to the neonatal unit. Outcome measures. At discharge 60% of mothers intended to breast-feed their babies exclusively the next day. The mother's decision to breast-feed her baby at home was significantly associated with her decision before delivery (P = 0.0050). Other factors positively associated with the decision to breast-feed exclusively at home were a significantly higher birth weight of the baby (P < 0.0008) and gestational age of the baby (P < 0.0005). The only hospital practice positively associated with this decision was the frequency with which mothers saw their babies during their stay in the unit (P = 0.0153). Mothers' knowledge of how to increase breast-milk supply was very poor. Conclusions. Infants with a lower weight and gestational age, who stayed in the unit longer, were less likely to be breast-fed after discharge from the neonatal unit. The mothers' experience in the unit did not seem to alter their choice of feeding method decided upon before delivery. This suggests that efforts to promote breast-feeding in the neonatal unit were either ineffectual or inadequate. In order to remedy this situation it is necessary to keep the mother-infant pair together (lodger mothers) and to promote breast-feeding before and after delivery. It would also be necessary to train staff in the management of lactation problems.

Hallden, G. (1994). The Family - A Refuge From Demands or an Arena for the Exercise of Power and Control - Children's Fictions on their Future Families. Children's Childhoods: Observed and Experiences. B. Mayall. London, Falmer Press.
	
Halpern, C. T., J. R. Udry, et al. (1999). "Effects of body fat on weight concerns, dating, and sexual activity: A longitudinal analysis of black and white adolescent girls."  35(3): 721-736.
	Using data from a 2-year longitudinal study of 200 Black and White adolescent girls (mean age was 13.8 years at study entry), the authors investigated the implications of differences in body fat for dating and sexual activity and the implications of heterosexual activity for dieting and weight concerns. Among White girls, and Black girls with college-educated mothers, more body fat was associated with a lower probability of dating, even among nonobese girls. However, dating and sexual experience were unrelated to subsequent dieting and weight concerns. For both Blacks and Whites, body fat was the key determinant of dieting, weight dissatisfaction, and eating concerns. These findings indicate that adolescent girls' concerns about weight have a basis in real experiential differences, and efforts to promote healthy attitudes and eating habits may be more effective if the experiential implications of weight differences are taken into account.

Halvorson, S. J. (2004). "Women's management of the household health environment: responding to childhood diarrhea in the Northern Areas, Pakistan."  10(1): 43-58.
	This paper examines mothers' management of water, sanitation, hygiene, and childhood diarrhea in a mountain community in the Northern Areas, Pakistan. It draws upon qualitative data obtained from 65 in-depth interviews and other ethnographic field methods. The analysis shows that respondents were familiar with diarrhea control interventions carried out in the study site, and associated childhood diarrhea with oral-fecal transmission routes such as poor water quality, unhygienic behaviors, contaminated food, and inadequate sanitation practices. Findings also demonstrate the continuance of long-established cultural patterns of perception and behavior with regard to childhood diarrhea and the influence of socio-economic constraints to instituting new management practices. (C) 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Hamer, J. (2001). What it means to be daddy : fatherhood for black men living away from their children. Chichester, Columbia University Press.
	
Hannon, P. A., Deborah J. Bowen, Carol M. Moinpour, Dale F. McLerran (2003). "Correlations in perceived food use between the family food preparer and their spouses and children Research Report." Appetite 40: 77-83.
	Previous research has demonstrated that family members' eating habits are similar. We hypothesized that family members' eating habits would be predicted by the eating habits of the person who prepares the majority of the family's meals and the number of meals the family shares. Participants were 282 members of religious organizations who identified themselves as family food preparers (FFPs), and provided information about their own and their family members' eating habits. Results revealed that FFP fruit and vegetable intake predicted the fruit and vegetable intake of spouses, children, and adolescents ( p , 0.01), and that FFP consumption of high-fat foods predicted the consumption of high-fat foods of spouses and children ( p , 0.01). Child fruit and vegetable consumption was also influenced by shared meals: the more meals the child shared with the FFP, the stronger the relationship of FFP fruit and vegetable intake with child fruit and vegetable intake ( p , 0.05). These findings indicate that dietary interventions targeting the FFP may benefit other family members.

Hannon, P. A., D. J. Bowen, et al. (2003). "Correlations in perceived food use between the family food preparer and their spouses and children." Appetite 40(1): 77-83.
	Previous research has demonstrated that family members’ eating habits are similar. We hypothesized that family members’ eating habits would be predicted by the eating habits of the person who prepares the majority of the family’s meals and the number of meals the family shares. Participants were 282 members of religious organizations who identified themselves as family food preparers (FFPs), and provided information about their own and their family members’ eating habits. Results revealed that FFP fruit and vegetable intake predicted the fruit and vegetable intake of spouses, children, and adolescents ( p , 0.01), and that FFP consumption of high-fat foods predicted the consumption of high-fat foods of spouses and children ( p , 0.01). Child fruit and vegetable consumption was also influenced by shared meals: the more meals the child shared with the FFP, the stronger the relationship of FFP fruit and vegetable intake with child fruit and vegetable intake ( p , 0.05). These findings indicate that dietary interventions targeting the FFP may benefit other family members. 

Hardiman, E. R. (2004). "Networks of Caring: A Qualitative Study of Social Support in Consumer-Run Mental Health Agencies."
	This article examines consumer-run agency participation by adults with psychiatric disabilities. Using qualitative data from 10 intensive interviews, the purpose was to explore personal meanings attached to agency membership, & understand the lived experiences of participants. A grounded hermeneutic approach was utilized to analyse results. Findings reveal that individuals balance agency utilization & external peer network development. Organizational factors previously found related to social network enhancement (e.g. empowerment & emphasis on supportive services) were confirmed here. The emergent narratives captured in this study suggest that these agencies function as low-demand, accepting, safe, & sheltering environments while offering opportunities for human connection, shared agency ownership & community. Finally, access to otherwise unavailable peer-focused 'networks of caring' was of utmost importance to participants. Implications for the organization & delivery of services are addressed. Social workers & other mental health professionals seeking to maximize community integration & develop natural supports for clients should explore consumer-run agencies. 33 References. [Reprinted by permission of Sage Publications Ltd., copyright 2004.].

Harding, J. (1998). Sex acts : practices of femininity and masculinity. Thousand Oaks, [Calif.] ; London, Sage.
	
Hardyment, C. (1995). Slice of life: the British way of eating since 1945. London, BBC Books.
	
Hardyment, C. (1998). The Future of the Family. London, Phoenix.
	
Hardyment, C. ( 1983). Dream babies: child care from Locke to Spock [? Also published under title: Dream Babies: Three Centuries of Good Advice on Child Care]. Oxford, Oxford University Press.
	
Harper, A. E. (1988). "Killer French Fries: the misguided drive to improve the American diet." Sciences 28(1): 21-7.
	
Harpham, T., S. Huttly, et al. (2005). "Maternal mental health and child nutritional status in four developing countries." Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 59(12): 1060-1064.
	
Harris, H. E., G. T. H. Ellison, et al. (1999). "Do the psychosocial and behavioral changes that accompany motherhood influence the impact of pregnancy on long-term weight gain?"  20(2): 65-79.
	The aim of the present study was to assess whether the psychosocial and behavioral changes that occur during and after pregnancy influence long-term weight gain. The study examined 74 mothers enrolled in the Antenatal Care (ANC) Project (a randomized controlled trial of antenatal care based in South London), all of whom had volunteered to take part in a subsequent follow-up study. Data on body weight at the beginning of pregnancy; lifestyle and behavior during pregnancy; antenatal care and obstetric history; together with measures of postnatal depression and parenting stress following pregnancy were taken from the existing ANC Project database. Additional measurements of height and weight together with information on a variety of lifestyle changes and psychosocial characteristics, were gathered during semi-structured interviews at each mother's home, two and a half years after their children had been born. The results show that pregnancy-related weight gains are not simply the result of retaining weight that is gained during pregnancy, but that they also originate from gaining additional weight in the postpartum period. Mothers who felt they ate more after their children were born, had significantly greater long-term weight gains (2.78 (3.42) kg) than those who felt that they had not increased their food intake (-1.15 (0.76) kg; t = 2.49, p = 0.036). Similarly, mothers who felt they had greater access to food postpartum, had significantly greater long-term weight gains (1.70 (0.87) kg) than those who felt they did not have greater access to food (-1.37 (1.13) hg t = 2.18 p = 0.032). There was some evidence that the lifestyle changes which accompany pregnancy and motherhood increase some women's vulnerability to eating disorder psychopathology. Mothers who felt they did less exercise after pregnancy than they did before, were also at greater risk of long-term weight gain (p = 0.028), as were mothers with law numbers of supportive individuals (p = 0.033). Neither the stress of parenting nor maternal depression were significantly associated with an increased risk of long-term weight gain (p > 0.05).

Harris, H. E., G. T. H. Ellison, et al. (1999). "Relative importance of heritable characteristics and lifestyle in the development of maternal obesity."  53(2): 66-74.
	Study objective-To assess the relative importance of heritable characteristics and lifestyle in the development of "maternal obesity" after pregnancy. Setting-South east London, in the homes of mothers who had delivered their babies at either Guy's, Lewisham or St Thomas's hospitals. Participants-Seventy four mothers of low antenatal risk who had been enrolled in the Antenatal Care (ANC) Project (a previous trial of antenatal care) during the first trimester of pregnancy, and who had subsequently been followed up 2.5 years after delivery. Design-Information on parental obesity, psychosocial and sociodemographic factors as well as lifestyle, was gathered during a semi-structured interview at each mother's home. Additional anthropometric and psychosocial data were taken from the existing ANC Project database. These data were used to assess the relative importance of heritable characteristics and lifestyle on changes in maternal body weight from the beginning of pregnancy to the follow up interview. Main results-After adjusting for the effects of potential confounders and known risk factors for maternal obesity, women who selected larger silhouettes to represent their biological mothers were significantly more likely to have higher long term weight gains than those who selected thinner maternal silhouettes (r = 0.083, p = 0.004). Women who were less satisfied with their bodies postpartum had significantly greater long term weight gains than those women who displayed no increase in dissatisfaction with their bodies after pregnancy (r = 0.067, p = 0.010). Conclusions-A heritable predisposition to gain weight together with changing attitudes to body size, both had an independent role in the development of maternal body weight after pregnancy. Differences in each woman's heritable predisposition to gain weight and any changes in body image that occur after pregnancy might explain why some women gain weight in association with pregnancy.

Harris, I. M. (1995). Messages men hear : constructing masculinities. London, Taylor & Francis.
	
Harris, M. (1986). Good to eat: riddles of food and culture. New York, Simon and Schuster.
	
Harris, M. A., T. Wysocki, et al. (2000). "Validation of a structured interview for the assessment of diabetes self-management."  23(9): 1301-1304.
	OBJECTIVE - The authors developed and validated a semi-structured interview the Diabetes Self-Management Profile (DSMP), to measure self-management of type 1 diabetes. The DSMP includes the following regimen components: exercise, management of hypoglycemia, diet, blood glucose testing, and insulin administration and dose adjustment. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS - Families of youths with type 1 diabetes (n = 105) who were entering a controlled trial of intensive therapy (IT) versus usual care (UC) were administered the DSMP Analyses assessed the reliability and validity of the DSMP, including its associations with HbA(1c) and quality of life. RESULTS - The DSMP total score has adequate internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha 0.76), 3-month test-retest reliability (Pearson correlation, r = 0.67), inter-interviewer agreement (r = 0 94), and parent-adolescent agreement (r = 0.61). DSMP total scores (r = -0.28) and 3 subscales correlated significantly with HbA(1c) (diet [r = -0.27], blood glucose testing [r = - 0.37], and insulin administration and dose adjustment [r = -0.25]). Adolescents' reports of self-management did not differ from parental reports. Higher DSMP scores were associated with more favorable quality of life for mothers and youths. CONCLUSIONS - The DSMP is a convenient measure that yields a reliable and valid assessment of diabetes self-management. Compared with extant similar measures, the DSMP is more strongly correlated with HbA(1c).

Harrison, R., T. Newholm, et al., Eds. (2005). The Ethical Consumer. London, Sage.
	
Harriss-White, B. and R. Hoffenberg, Eds. (1994). Food: Multidisciplinary Perspectives. Oxford, Basil Blackwell.
	
Hart, K. H., A. Herriot, J. A. Bishop and H. Truby (2003). "Promoting healthy diet and exercise patterns amongst primary school children: a qualitative investigation of parental perspectives." Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics 16: 89-96.
	Parents represent a potentially powerful intermediary in behaviour change strategies aimed at improving the lifestyle behaviours of young children. However, to fulfil this role, parents need to have the necessary knowledge and motivation to assimilate dietary guidelines. This study aimed to assess these psychosocial constructs, and subsequent parental receptiveness to nutrition education, through investigation of the barriers and benefits perceived by parents to the provision of a healthy diet and adequate exercise for their children. A qualitative methodology was employed and 41 parents took part in seven focus groups separated by socio-economic status (SES). Across the groups, a combination of reported external barriers and unconscious internal barriers, stemming from high optimistic bias, low perceived control and unrealistic health expectations, were observed. SES differences were suggested in restrictive feeding practices, the responsibility attributed to the school and in the level and format of desired nutrition education. Overall a demand for interventions focusing on behavioural techniques rather than fact transmission was uncovered, in particular the promotion of parental self-awareness to reduce negative influences within the family food environment. Providing realistic definitions of appropriate behaviour and empowering parents to tackle children's weight issues were indicated as important targets for future education programmes.

Harvey, M., A. McMeekin, et al. (2004). Qualities of food. Manchester, New York :, New York, Manchester University Press, Distributed exclusively in the USA by Palgrave.
	
Haschke, F. and M. A. van't Hof (2003). "The influence of nutritional and genetic factors on growth and BMI until 5 years of age."  151: S54-S57.
	Given the increasing numbers of overweight children,the EuroGrowth Study is aimed at investigating predictors for an increased Body Mass Index (BMI). The multi-centre,longitudinal,observational study therefore examines the influence of early nutrition-until 4-6 months of age -on growth and weight. A total of 2,245 healthy children, born full term (1,154 boys and 1,091 girls), were included from 22 study centres in 12 European countries. Data on weight,size,and the educational standard of the parents as well as demographic and socio-economic factors and the babies birth data were included. Anthropometric measurements and interviews on nutrition were made until the fifth birthday. The most important predictor of genetically determined growth potential was the average height of the parents. Predictors of weight gain until 60 months of age were duration of breast feeding, time at which solid food was first taken, sex, educational level the mother, and the height of the parents. The BMI at 1 month was the strongest and the BMI of the parents the second strongest predictor of a BMI over the 90th percentile at an age of between 12 and 60 months. For the successful prevention of overweight in children, however, additional significant predictors need to be identified.

Haslam, C., W. Lawrence, et al. (2003). "Intention to breastfeed and other important health-related behaviour and beliefs during pregnancy." Family Practice 20(5): 528-530.
	
Hassan, S. Fiction in women's magazines 1693-1983: 144leaves.
	
Hatton, C. and E. Emerson (2003). "Families with a person with intellectual disabilities: stress and impact." Current Opinion in Psychiatry 16(5): 497-501.
	Purpose of review This paper reviews research published since March 2002 that has addressed the situation of families with a person with intellectual disabilities. Such research is organized into research concerning families with a child with intellectual disabilities and families with an adult with intellectual disabilities, including parents with intellectual disabilities. Trends in family research, including greater methodological diversity and an expanding conception of the family, are highlighted. Recent findings Parents of children with intellectual disabilities report relatively high levels of distress, with a wide range of child, parent, family and service support factors implicated in parental distress. However, many parents also report positive perceptions of their child with intellectual disabilities. Research with parents who themselves have intellectual disabilities report very high levels of maternal distress, associated with a lack of social support. Methodologically, most studies are quantitative cross- sectional surveys using correlational analyses, with little consistency in measures or constructs across studies. However, increasing methodological diversity in family research is apparent. Summary Research concerning families with people with intellectual disabilities is gradually becoming more methodologically diverse and theoretically sophisticated, although more cooperation between research groups is required. Family research is also changing to reflect the changing status of people with intellectual disabilities in society, with expanding conceptions of family systems and increasing attempts to elicit the views of people with intellectual disabilities on their perceptions of these family systems

Hauck, Y. L. and V. F. Irurita (2002). "Constructing compatibility: Managing breast-feeding and weaning from the mother's perspective." Qualitative Health Research 12(7): 897-914.
	
Hausman, B. L. (2004). "The feminist politics of breast feeding." Australian Feminist Studies 19(45): 273-285.
	
Hayes, M. a. S., A. (2000). "Social capital and health promotion: A review,." Social Science Medicine 51(6): 871-885.
	
Hays, J., T. G. Power, et al. (2001). "Effects of maternal socialization strategies on children's nutrition knowledge and behavior."  22(4): 421-437.
	This study examined the relationship between maternal socialization strategies and children's nutrition knowledge and behavior. It was hypothesized that children of mothers who used strategies that promote the internalization of healthful eating practices would demonstrate greater understanding of the relationship between nutrition and health. Seventy-nine low-income, immigrant Mexican American mothers and their children (ages 4 to 8) participated. Measures of maternal strategies and child eating behavior were obtained through observations of mother-child interactions during a meal in the home and through a structured interview. Children's knowledge and awareness of the relationship between nutrition and health were assessed in a structured play session. Results indicated that after controlling for child age, mothers' use of reasoning, verbal nondirectiveness, and their provision of opportunities for children to participate in food decisions were positively related to children's knowledge and awareness, whereas the use of commands was negatively related. The use of commands, however, was positively associated with children's compliance to maternal eating directives. Mothers who were overweight, who discouraged unhealthy eating, and who used nutrition rationales had children who gave more physical appearance or weight responses. (C) 2001 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved.

Health, D. o. (1999). Saving Lives: Our Healthier Nation. London, HMSO.
	
Health, D. o. ( 2004). Choosing Health: Making healthy choice easier. London, DoH.
	
Health, D. o. ((1998)). Our Healthier Nation: A Contract for Health. London:, HMSO.
	
Health), D. D. o. (2000). The NHS Plan: A Plan for Investment, A Plan for Reform. London:, HMSO.
	
Health), D. D. o. ((1999)). Saving Lives: Our Healthier Nation. London:, HMSO.
	
Hearn, J., D. H. J. Morgan, et al. (1990). Men, masculinities & social theory. London, Unwin Hyman.
	
Heinig, M. J., J. R. Follett, et al. (2006). "Barriers to compliance with infant-feeding recommendations among low-income women." Journal of Human Lactation 22(1): 27-38.
	
Heinzer, M. M. (2005). "Obesity in infancy: questions, more questions and few answers." Newborn and Infant Nursing Reviews 5(4): 194-202.
	
Heird, W. C. (2002). "Parental feeding behaviour and children's fat mass." American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 75: 451-452.
	
Helgeson, V. S., D. Janicki, et al. (2003). "Brief report: Adjustment to juvenile rheumatoid arthritis: A family systems perspective." Journal of Pediatric Psychology 28(5): 347-353.
	Objective To examine the relations of the family environment to adjustment to juvenile rheumatoid arthritis (JRA), and to examine how those relations are influenced by child sex and age. Method Ninety-four children with JRA completed a questionnaire on family environment and adjustment. Results Family cohesion was related to good adjustment, whereas family conflict was related to poor adjustment. Some relations of family cohesion to adjustment were stronger for younger than for older children. The relations of child autonomy to adjustment depended on child sex and age. Conclusion The relations of the family environment to adjustment to JRA are dependent on child sex and age

Helterline, M. (1980). "The Emergence of Modern Motherhood: Motherhood in England 1899 to 1959." International Journal of Women's Studies 3(6): 590-614.
	Analyzes the content of English women's magazines published between 1899 and 1959 to test the concept that modern motherhood was not a continuation of Victorian models of motherhood but a new role due to the "the emergence of the concept of psychological development and the assignment of responsibility for it (the child) to the mother," and gives a decade-by-decade history of middle-class child rearing in England.

Hendya, H., K. Williams, et al. (2005). "“Kids Choice” School lunch program increases children’s fruit and vegetable acceptance." Appetite 45(3): 250–263.
	The “Kids Choice” school lunch program used token reinforcement, food choice, and peer participation to increase children’s fruit and
vegetable consumption without later drops in food preference sometimes found in past research and often called ‘overjustification effects.’
Participants included 188 school children (92 boys, 96 girls; mean age Z8.0; 95% Caucasian). After four baseline meals, children were
randomly assigned for 12 meals to receive token reinforcement for eating either fruits or vegetables. Observers recorded fruit and vegetable
consumption and provided token reinforcement by punching holes into nametags each day children ate their assigned foods, then once a week
children could trade these tokens for small prizes. Fruit and vegetable preference ratings were gathered with child interviews during baseline,
and during follow-up conditions two weeks and seven months after the token reinforcement program. Consumption increased for fruit and for
vegetables and the increases lasted throughout reinforcement conditions. Two weeks after the program, preference ratings showed increases
for fruit and for vegetables. Seven months later, fruit and vegetable preferences had returned to baseline levels, suggesting the need for an
ongoing school lunch program to keep preferences high, but also showing no signs of “overjustification effects” from the token reinforcement
used in the “Kids Choice” school lunch program.

Hennen, P. (2003). "The masculinity studies reader." CONTEMPORARY SOCIOLOGY-A JOURNAL OF REVIEWS 32(3): 337-338.
	
Henson, S., S. Gregory, et al. (1998). Food choice and diet change within the family setting. The Nation's Diet. The Social Science of Food Choice. A. Murcott. Essex, Pearson Education.
	Aim
"To explore what happens to food choices within the family when one member unilaterally decides to change their diet."

Hepworth, J. (1999). "Gender and the capacity of women with NIDDM to implement medical advice."  27(4): 260-266.
	This qualitative study of women with non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) examined constructions of their diabetes management and socio-familial relationships as potential sources of support. Semi-structured interview data was collected from 16 women. The transcripts were analysed with the aim of examining the ways in which Sender relations structured women's accounts of health-related behaviours. Women talked about themselves as wives, mothers, being pregnant and parenting, and friends of other women in ways that demonstrated how caring for others impeded their capacity to care for themselves. Meeting the food preferences of husbands and dietary requirements of diabetic husbands were dominant themes in women's accounts of marriage, and in various ways women justified their husbands' lack of support. Furthermore, the care of others during pregnancy and parenting was also an obstacle to women caring for themselves. An awareness of the gender politics inherent within social and family contexts is crucial to improving the effectiveness of medical advice for diabetes management.

Hermes, J. (1995). Reading women's magazines : an analysis of everyday media use. Cambridge, Polity.
	
Hesketh, K., E. Waters, et al. (2005). "Healthy eating, activity and obesity prevention: a qualitative study of parent and child perceptions in Australia." Health Promotion International 20(1): 19-27.
	
Highmore, B. (2002). The Everyday Life Reader. London, Routledge.
	
Hill, A. (2002). "Developmental issues in attitudes to food and diet." Nutrition Society 61: 259-266.
	As a rule, children and most adults eat what they like and leave the rest. They like and consume foods high in fat and sugar. Parental behaviour shapes food acceptance, and early exposure to fruit and vegetables or to foods high in energy, sugar and fat is related to children’s liking for, and consumption of, these foods. Some parents are imposing child-feeding practices that control what and how much children eat. However, over-control can be counter-productive, teaching children to dislike the very foods we want them to consume, and generally undermining self-regulation abilities. The external environment is also important, with concerns expressed about food advertising to children and girls dieting for an ideal thin body shape. Up to one-quarter of young adolescent girls report dieting to lose weight, their motivation driven by weight and shape
dissatisfaction. For some, dieting and vegetarianism are intertwined and both legitimised as healthy eating. For others, striving for nutritional autonomy, the choice of less-healthy foods is not just because of their taste, but an act of parental defiance and peer solidarity. The determinants of what children choose to eat are complex, and the balance changes as children get older. A better understanding is crucial to informing how we might modify nutritional behaviour. Adults occupy a central position in this process, suggesting that children should be neither the only focus of
nutritional interventions nor expected to solve the nutritional problems with which adults around them are continuing to fail.

Hill, A. J. (2002). "Developmental issues in attitudes to food and diet." Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 61(2): 259-266.
	As a rule, children and most adults cat what they like and leave the rest. They like and consume foods high in fat and sugar. Parental behaviour shapes food acceptance, and early exposure to fruit and vegetables or to foods high in energy, sugar and fat is related to children's liking for, and consumption of, these foods. Some parents are imposing child-feeding practices that control what and how much children eat. However, over-control can be counter-productive, teaching children to dislike the very foods we want them to consume, and generally undermining self-regulation abilities. The external environment is also important, with concerns expressed about food advertising to children and girls dieting for an ideal thin body shape. Up to one-quarter of young adolescent girls report dieting to lose weight, their motivation driven by weight and shape dissatisfaction. For some, dieting and vegetarianism are intertwined and both legitimised as healthy eating. For others, striving for nutritional autonomy, the choice of less-healthy foods is not just because of their taste, but an act of parental defiance and peer solidarity. The determinants of what children choose to eat are complex, and the balance changes as children get older. A better understanding is crucial to informing how we might modify nutritional behaviour. Adults occupy a central position in this process, suggesting that children should be neither the only focus of nutritional interventions nor expected to solve the nutritional problems with which adults around them are continuing to fail.

Hill, P., S. S. Humenick, et al. (1997). "Effects of parity and weaning practices on breastfeeding duration."  14(4): 227-234.
	The purpose of this project was to examine (a) patterns of breastfeeding and (b) duration with parity and breastfeeding experience, and (c) mothers' reasons for termination of breastfeeding. A convenience sample of 120 breastfeeding mothers was followed by home visits and telephone for 20 weeks after delivery. The sample consisted of 69 primiparas, 40 multiparas with previous breastfeeding experience, and 11 multiparas with no prior breastfeeding experience. Parity was not significantly associated with the continuation of breastfeeding but there was a trend toward a difference made by breastfeeding experience. Inadequate milk supply and employment were the two most common reasons reported for weaning. Implications for support in the workplace and for first-time breastfeeding mothers are discussed.

Hill, P. D., J. L. Andersen, et al. (1995). "Delayed Initiation of Breast-Feeding the Preterm Infant."  9(2): 10-20.
	It is well documented that mother's milk is the best source of nutrition for the preterm infant. However, mothers of preterm infants face obstacles during the early stages of the breast-feeding experience. This study examined the experiences of 13 mothers whose preterm infants initiated suckling at the breast on day 14 or later after birth. Eight weeks after delivery, six infants were exclusively receiving mother's milk four were receiving mother's milk and formula, and three infants had been weaned entirely from mother's milk. Some of the problems encountered by these mothers may have been averted with input from health professionals with special knowledge in breast-feeding the preterm infant. A clinical pathway for breast-feeding preterm infants is presented.

Hillerviklindquist, C. (1991). "Studies on Perceived Breast-Milk Insufficiency - a Prospective-Study in a Group of Swedish Women." 1-27.
	A prospective investigation of the course of breast-feeding was carried out in a group of 51 healthy, well educated Swedish women during the period three days to 18 months after delivery. The aims were to investigate the incidence, causes and consequences of perceived breast milk insufficiency (transient lactation crises), by relating this phenomenon to the infant's breast milk consumption and growth, and to the course of breast-feeding. It was found that every second mother experienced transient lactation crises on at least one occasion (the crisis group). The crises were mostly caused by emotional disturbances in the mothers (e.g. anxiety, stress and discomfort), or by the infant's refusal to suckle, by unmotivated crying, or by illness. Within the crisis group no significant difference was found between the infants' intake of breast milk during the crises compared with control measurements one week later. Nor had the crises any immediate impact on the growth of the infants. A comparison between the mothers with crises and those who did not experience any crises, revealed that the breast milk consumption among the infants in the crisis group was lower throughout with significant differences at three and five months. The infants in the crisis group also had a significantly lower weight at two, three, four and nine months, although both groups were above the NCHS mean. The reasons for initiating breast-feeding differed between the two groups. The crisis group tended to give infant-related reasons to a higher degree than the mothers in the non-crisis group who more frequently mentioned mother-related motives. The mothers with crises also showed a greater ambivalence during the lactation period and terminated the breast-feeding somewhat earlier. Consequently they also introduced taste portions and started the weaning significantly earlier. Some general findings revealed a wide variation in breast milk consumption, not only between infants but also in the same infant from one occasion to another. The total energy intake was almost the same for the partially breast-fed infants, receiving breast milk plus supplementary food, and those who were exclusively breast-fed. Although most mothers in both groups initiated the weaning in accordance with general recommendations, a wide variation was also found in the length of the weaning period. In some cases it lasted for more than five months.

Hillerviklindquist, C. (1992). "Studies on Perceived Breast-Milk Insufficiency - Relation to Attitude and Practice."  24(3): 413-425.
	Fifty-one mother-infant pairs were followed prospectively by home visits and telephone contacts during the first 6 months post-partum. Comparisons between mothers who experienced lactation crises because of perceived breast-milk insufficiency (crisis group) and those who did not (non-crisis group) revealed differences in attitudes to breast-feeding, breast-feeding behaviour and sexual life. The crisis group tended to initiate breast-feeding for infant-related reasons more frequently than the non-crisis group, which more frequently gave mother-related reasons. During the course of breast-feeding attitude changes in a negative direction were significantly more common in the crisis group. No difference was found between the groups in the resumption of sexual life, but 59% of all the women claimed that they experienced less or no desire compared to before pregnancy and, of these, a significantly higher proportion belonged to the crisis group.

Hillerviklindquist, C., Y. Hofvander, et al. (1991). "Studies on Perceived Breast-Milk Insufficiency - Relationship to the Weaning Process."  4(5): 317-326.
	In order to study the weaning process in relation to transient lactation crises, 51 mother-infant pairs were followed prospectively during the period from 3 days to 18 months after delivery. In total, 55% of the mothers experienced transient lactation crises, emanating mostly from a perception of breast milk insufficiency. It was found that those in the crisis group introduced taste portions and started the weaning process significantly earlier than those in the non-crisis group although most mothers in both groups initiated weaning in accordance with general recommendations. A wide variation in the length of the weaning period was also found. In 25% of the infants in the crisis group and 35% in the non-crisis group the weaning period lasted for more than 5 months. It was also revealed that most mothers in both groups started the transition from breast milk feeds to supplements at single feeds with the noon feed and ended the weaning with the evening or night feed. This transition at single feeds, however, was carried out at very different speeds, ranging from 0 to 46 weeks in the crisis group and from 0 to 28 weeks in the non-crisis group. It is concluded that each individual mother seemed to have her own way of weaning her infant. A greater awareness of this variation in weaning behaviour is of importance when guiding the mother.

Hillsbonczyk, S. G., M. D. Avery, et al. (1993). "Womens Experiences with Combining Breast-Feeding and Employment."  38(5): 257-266.
	A group of primiparas who combined breast-feeding and employment are described in terms of how they felt about the experience, the difficulties they encountered, factors that affected their total duration of breast-feeding, and patterns of feeding while separated from their infant. These women are contrasted with primiparas who weaned prior to returning to work and those who remained homemakers. Of the 619 women included in the analyses, 499 (80.6%) of the women returned to work or school by 12 months postpartum and 288 (46.5%) continued to breast-feed after returning to work. Women who combined breast-feeding and employment were older, had more years of education, worked fewer hours per week, and more worked in professional jobs than those who weaned prior to returning to work. A number of women who chose to express breast milk only at home thought they would have had problems with having enough time and finding a place to express and to store expressed milk had they tried to express breast milk at work. The overwhelming majority of women who combined breast-feeding and employment felt that it was worth the trouble, that they would recommend it to others, and that they had done something special for their infants that no one else could do. The findings suggest that nursing interventions and workplace accommodations could assist more women to experience the benefits and rewards of continuing to breast-feed after returning to employment.

Hillsbonczyk, S. G., K. R. Tromiczak, et al. (1994). "Womens Experiences with Breast-Feeding Longer Than 12 Months."  21(4): 206-212.
	This prospective, longitudinal study was conducted to describe the experiences of 82 primiparas who breastfed longer than 12 months. They were compared with 541 primiparas who weaned their infants within the first year. Greater age, education, and weeks of exclusive breastfeeding were associated with longer duration of breastfeeding. More than two-thirds (68%) of the women who breastfed longer than one year returned to employment before their infant was 1 year old. The most frequently chosen reason for long-term breastfeeding was that breastfeeding was a special time for mother and baby that the mother was not ready to give up. Nearly half of the women reported breastfeeding their babies on demand. At 12 to 15 months, 54 percent of the babies slept in a crib in a separate room, and 37 percent slept in the same bed with their mother all or part of the night. Most mothers (57%) considered their support group to be slightly or moderately important in influencing their decision to breastfeed beyond a year, and 10 percent considered it to be extremely important. The major themes that emerged from women's comments were the importance of being strong in the face of social unacceptability, development of a close mother-child bond, and the naturalness of breastfeeding beyond 12 months. Health caregivers should recognize the emotional and interpersonal aspects of long-term breastfeeding, support the breastfeeding relationship, and avoid contributing to the development of ''closet nursers'' so that women may feel free to discuss their concerns about their child's health.

Hinds, A. (1978). An investigation of the cover images of British women's magazines, Royal College of Art.
	
Hirst, J. (1998). "Reform threatens supported housing."
	Social housing experts say the government is talking up the level of Housing Benefit expenditure to justify cuts. Meanwhile, some of the most vulnerable claimants, in supported and sheltered housing, are falling victim to cost-shunting arguments between the Department of Social Security and the Department of Health. Looks at what this means for the individuals caught in the middle and at the prospects for the future. (Original abstract - amended)

Hitchcock, T. and M. Cohen (1999). English masculinities, 1660-1800 : edited by Tim Hitchcock and Michèle Cohen. London, Longman.
	
Hitchen, L. (2006). "Doctors are failing to tell diabetic people about UK driving rules." BMJ 332(812).
	
Hoddinott, P. and R. Pill "A qualitative study of women's views about how health professionals communicate about infant feeding." Health Expectations 3(4): 224-33.
	Describes a study in which 21 white, low income women expecting their first baby were interviewed. While the infant feeding goal for many women is a contented, thriving baby, women perceive that the goal for health professionals is the continuation of breastfeeding. Words alone offering support for breastfeeding were often inadequate and women valued practical demonstrations and being shown how to feed their baby. Spending time with a caring midwife with whom the woman had developed a personal, continuing relationship was highly valued. (Original abstract - amended)

Hoddinott, P. and R. Pill (1999). "Qualitative study of decisions about infant feeding among women in east end of London."  318(7175): 30-34.
	Objective To improve understanding of how first time mothers who belong to a socioeconomic group with particularly low rates of breast feeding decide whether or not to initiate breast feeding. Design Qualitative semistructured interviews early in pregnancy and 6-10 weeks after birth. Setting Women's homes in east end of London. Subjects 21 white, low income women expecting their first baby were interviewed mostly at home, often with their partner or a relative. Two focus groups were conducted. Results Women who had regularly seen a relative or friend successfully breast feed and described this experience positively were more confident about and committed to breast feeding. They were also more likely to succeed. Exposure to breast feeding, however, could be either a positive or a negative influence on the decision to breast feed, depending on the context Women who had seen breast feeding only by a stranger often described this as a negative influence, particularly if other people were present. All women knew that breast feeding has health benefits. Ownership of this knowledge, however, varied according to the woman's experience of seeing breast feeding. Conclusions The decision to initiate breast feeding is influenced more by embodied knowledge gained from seeing breast feeding than by theoretical knowledge about its benefits. Breast feeding involves performing a practical skill, often with others present The knowledge, confidence, and commitment necessary to breast feed may be more effectively gained through antenatal apprenticeship to a breastfeeding mother than from advice given in consultations or from books.

Hodes, M., S. Timimi, et al. (1997). "Children of mothers with eating disorders: A preliminary study."  5(1): 11-24.
	This study investigated the extent of psychiatric disorder and abnormalities of weight and growth amongst children of mothers with eating disorders. The design was a cross-sectional study, in which mothers were identified by attendance at specialist eating disorder services. Assessments included interviews with the mothers and children, questionnaires included EAT and child behaviour questionnaires (Rutter A scale), and weight and height of mothers and children was measured. Thirteen mothers who had 26 children participated in the study. The findings were that mothers had chronic eating disorders and high rates of marital difficulties and separation. Amongst the children 50 per cent had psychiatric disorders, and 32 per cent abnormalities of weight or growth. Female offspring tended to have low body weight. Mothers underestimated their children's dietary needs. The adjustment and growth of this group of children should be considered when mothers request help for themselves.

Hodges, E. A. (2003). "A primer on early childhood obesity and parental influence." Pediatric Nursing. 29(1): 13-6.
	Childhood obesity is a common health problem facing U.S. children with an increasing prevalence particularly in certain populations. Recognizing obesity in children is a clinical determination with specific measures that can indicate potential future associated health problems, but parental perception of overweight and/or obesity is influenced by other conditions. This primer offers a brief synopsis of parental influence in the etiology of early childhood obesity beginning with parameters of obesity and how it is operationalized through measurement. The importance of parental perceptions of their children relative to obesity and eating are discussed, and how parents influence the development of childhood eating behaviors or physical activity are considered. [References: 30]

Holbrook, B. and P. Jackson (1996). "The social milieux of two north London shopping centres." Geoforum 27(2): 193-204.
	As part of a larger project involving both quantitative and qualitative research, this paper discusses the findings of a questionnaire survey at Brent Cross and Wood Green concerning the social use of two north London shopping centres. Combined with focus group and ethnographic research (reported elsewhere), the survey results provide fresh empirical evidence about the nature of consumption as a social process, extending well beyond the point of sale. The paper demonstrates that 'regional' centres (like Brent Cross) have a surprisingly 'local' clientele; that shoppers at the two centres differ less markedly in terms of conventional measures of social class than might have been expected; but that there are significant perceived differences in the social character of the two centres. It is also suggested that looking (and other social aspects of shopping) may be as important as buying for many consumers and that 'family shopping' is better understood as a convenient marketing metaphor rather than as an accurate description of most people's shopping practices and preferences. The paper highlights the need to gain a more thorough understanding of the views of ordinary consumers in everyday places (like Wood Green and Brent Cross) in order to provide a more grounded analysis of the nature of contemporary consumption. Copyright (C) 1996 Elsevier Science Ltd

Holden, T. J. M. (2005). "The Overcooked and Underdone: Masculinities in Japanese Food Programming." Food and Foodways 13: 39-65.
	
Holloway, S. and G. Valentine (2001). "Children at home in the wired world: Reshaping and rethinking home in urban geography." Urban Geography 22(6): 562-583.
	This paper is concerned with two developments which place questions about the home center-stage in urban geography, namely the growth of new information and communications technologies (ICT) and the rise of  "critical geographies." The paper draws on an empirical in vestigation into British children's domestic use of ICT to move beyond utopian and dystopian hyperbole about the future of the home in the wired world and consider how children's ICT usage is shaped within and reshapes the home environment. In so doing, the paper both broadens and deepens the conceptualization of home in urban geography. In terms of breadth, the analysis illustrates the importance of including children's as well as adults' voices and experiences in studies of domestic life. In terms of depth, it highlights the importance of studying the micro-geographies of home as well as how social relations within the home shape its relation to the wider world.

Holloway, S. L. and G. Valentine (2000). "Corked hats and coronation street - British and New Zealand children's imaginative geographies of the other." Childhood 7(3): 335-357.
	This article contributes to the developing literature on childhood and national identity by considering the ways in which children imagine other nations. Focusing in particular on on-line interactions between children in 12 British and 12 New Zealand schools, the article explores their imaginative geographies of each other, and assesses the ways these visions are endorsed or contested by the children to whom they refer. The article not only illustrates the sources and importance of stereotypical understandings of landscape, people and patterns of daily life in other nations, but also the ways these may be contested through on-line contact.

Holloway, S. L. and G. Valentine (2000). "Spatiality and the new social studies of childhood." Sociology 34(4): 763-783.
	The past two decades have seen rapid changes in the ways in which sociologists think about children, and a growing cross-fertilisation of ideas between researchers in a variety of social science disciplines. This paper builds upon these developments by exploring what three inter-related ways of thinking about spatiality might contribute to the new social studies of childhood. Specifically, we identify the importance of progressive understandings of place in overcoming the split between global and local approaches to childhood; we discuss the ways in which children's identities are constituted in and through particular spaces; and we examine the ways in which our understandings of childhood can shape the meaning of spaces and places. These ideas are illustrated by reference to our current research on children's use of the internet as well as a range of wider studies.

Hollows, J. (2003). "Feeling like a domestic goddess: Postfeminism and cooking." European Journal of Cultural Studies 6(2): 179-202.
	
Hollows, J. (2003). "Oliver's Twist: Leisure, labour and domestic masculinity in The Naked Chef." International Journal of Cultural Studies 6(2): 229-248.
	
Holm, L. (2003). "Food health policies and ethics: lay perspectives on functional foods',." Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics, 16:(531 - 544).
	
Hood, M. Y., L. L. Moore, et al. (X2000). "Parental eating attitudes and the development of obesity in children. The Framingham Children's Study." International Journal of Obesity & Related Metabolic Disorders: Journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity. 24(10): 1319-25.
	OBJECTIVE: To investigate the extent to which parents' degree of dietary self-control, as measured by self-reported dietary restraint, disinhibition, and perceived hunger, affects the development of excess body fat in the child. DESIGN: Prospective observational study. SUBJECTS: Ninety-two 3-5y old children and their parents, enrolled in 1987 in the Framingham Children's Study. MEASUREMENTS: Self-reported levels of parental dietary restraint, disinhibition and perceived hunger were estimated using Stunkard and Messick's Three-Factor-Eating Questionnaire. Anthropometric measurements (height, weight and skinfold measurements at five sites) were obtained yearly for children and parents. The child's activity level was measured on multiple days each year using Caltrac accelerometers. Energy intake and percentage of calories from total fat were estimated from multiple sets of food diaries, collected each year. All analyses were adjusted for the following potential confounders: child's sex and baseline values for age, height, mean physical activity level, total calories and percentage of calories from fat as well as the educational levels of the parents at baseline. RESULTS: Over 6y, children's body fat increased linearly with increasing levels of self-reported parental disinhibition (eg 6y increase in the child's sum of five skinfolds was 34.4, 45.8 and 59.2 mm across increasing tertiles of parental disinhibition, P=0.012). Overall, children whose parents had higher dietary restraint scores had greater increases in body fatness than children whose parents had the lowest levels of restraint. When both parents had above average scores on dietary disinhibition or restraint, the children had greater increases in body fat (on all anthropometry measures) than when only one parent or when neither parent had high scores on those factors. Parental scores on the perceived hunger scale had no clear effect on body fat change of children. Since disinhibition and dietary restraint frequently co-exist, we then examined the joint effect of these two factors. The children with the greatest increases in body fat were those whose parents scored high on both factors. In the final analysis, we found that dietary restraint adversely affected the child's body fat only when associated with high parental disinhibition. CONCLUSION: This study suggests that parents who display high levels of disinhibited eating, especially when coupled with high dietary restraint, may foster the development of excess body fat in their children. This association may be mediated by direct parental role modeling of unhealthy eating behaviors, or through other indirect, and probably subconscious, behavioral consequences such as the suppression of the child's innate regulation of dietary intake.

Hornell, A., Y. Hofvander, et al. (2001). "Solids and formula: Association with pattern and duration of breastfeeding."  107(3).
	Objectives. To study changes in pattern and duration of breastfeeding associated with the introduction of solids and formula. Study Design. Descriptive longitudinal, prospective study. Setting. The participants were recruited from the maternity ward in the University Hospital in Uppsala, Sweden, between May 1989 and December 1992. A total of 15 189 infants were born during the period, 1 177 mother-infant pairs were found eligible for participation; 57% declined because of the perceived high workload. Study Population. Five hundred six mother-infant pairs. Methods. Daily recordings by the mothers on infant feeding, from the first week after delivery to the second menstruation postpartum or a new pregnancy; fortnightly home visits with structured interviews by a research assistant. Results. Introduction of solids was associated with no or minor changes in breastfeeding frequency and suckling duration. Breastfeeding frequency remained constant the first month after the introduction and then declined slowly, while daily suckling duration started to decline slowly when solids were introduced. Breastfeeding duration was not associated with infants' age at introduction of solids. In infants given formula, as soon as regular formula feeds started, the breastfeeding frequency and suckling duration declined swiftly. The younger an infant was at the start of regular formula feeds, the shorter the breastfeeding duration. Conclusions. Health care personnel and parents need to be aware that introduction of solids and introduction of formula can have very different consequences for breastfeeding. If the aim is to introduce other foods to breastfed infants under the protection of breast milk, it is important to realize that formula is also another food and needs to be treated as such.

Howard, C. R., F. M. Howard, et al. (1999). "The effects of early pacifier use on breastfeeding duration."  103(3).
	Objective. To evaluate the effects of pacifier use and the timing of pacifier introduction on breastfeeding duration, problems, and frequency. Methods. A cohort of 265 breastfeeding mother-infant dyads was followed prospectively. Maternal interviews were conducted at delivery, 2, 6, 12, and 24 weeks, and thereafter every 90 days until breastfeeding ended. Information was obtained regarding pacifier use, infant feeding, use of supplemental foods and breastfeeding frequency, duration, and problems. The effect of pacifier introduction by 6 weeks of age on breastfeeding duration was evaluated with Kaplan-Meier and Cox proportional hazards models. The effect of the timing of pacifier introduction (less than or equal to 2 weeks and less than or equal to 6 weeks) on breastfeeding duration at 2 and 3 months was evaluated using logistic regression modeling. Results. A total of 181 mothers (68%) introduced a pacifier before 6 weeks. In adjusted analyses, pacifier introduction by 6 weeks was associated with a significantly increased risk for shortened duration of full (hazard ratio, 1.53; 95% confidence interval: 1.15, 2.05) and overall (hazard ratio, 1.61; 95% confidence interval: 1.19,2.19) breastfeeding. Women who introduced pacifiers tended to breastfeed their infants fewer times per day, with significant differences noted at 2 (8.1 +/- 2.6 vs 9.0 +/- 2.3) and 12 weeks' (6.3 +/- 2.0 vs 7.4 +/- 1.6) postpartum. At 12 weeks postpartum, women who introduced pacifiers also were more likely to report that breastfeeding was inconvenient and that they had insufficient milk supplies. Pacifier use begun either before 2 weeks or before 6 weeks' postpartum was not significantly associated with breastfeeding duration at 2 and 3 months. Conclusions. Pacifier use was independently associated with significant declines in the duration of full and overall breastfeeding. Breastfeeding duration in the first 3 months' postpartum, however, was unaffected by pacifier use. Women who introduced pacifiers tended to breastfeed their infants less frequently and experienced breastfeeding problems consistent with infrequent feeding. Findings from this study suggest that the decreases in breastfeeding duration associated with pacifier use may be a consequence of less frequent breastfeeding among women who introduce pacifiers to their infants.

Howorka, K., J. Pumprla, et al. (1996). "Modular education for diabetes and pregnancy: Outcome analysis in 58 diabetic pregnancies under functional insulin treatment."  56(1): 41-49.
	Functional insulin treatment based on the patient's education for selective use of insulin for fasting, eating or correction of hyperglycaemia was used between 1985 and 1994 prospectively in 58 pregnancies (in 18 cases after conception) in 47 pregnant diabetic patients. We hypothesised that near-normalisation of glycaemia is possible throughout pregnancy by modular outpatient group education, individual counselling and functional insulin treatment. We wanted to investigate to which degree it might eliminate classical diabetes-associated neonatal complications. To avoid hospitalisation if possible and premature induction of labour, patients were taught both the primary adjustment (immediate correction of hyperglycaemia) and the secondary adjustment of the insulin dosages: correction of individual algorithms for insulin use according to daily insulin consumption and mean blood glucose MEG. A target metabolic control (HbAlc levels in the normal range, MBG < 100 and < 90 mg/dl after the 28th week of gestation respectively) was achieved in the majority of the 58 pregnancies. Severe hypoglycaemia occurred in 12 pa tients (21%). The gestational age at delivery was 39.0 +/- 1.6 (34-41; in 3 cases only [5%] < 37) weeks with an average birth weight of 3335 +/- 521 (1950-4450) g. The birth weight of only 5 newborn (9%) was above the 90th percentile and no one below the 10th percentile for weight of a comparable population. No cases of respiratory distress were observed. Hypoglycaemia was recorded in only 4 newborn (7%) and was comparable also to that of offsprings in non-diabetic women. Malformations were found in two offsprings whose mothers had presented first for diabetes education after conception, pregnancy being terminated in one case of meningomyelocele. Caesarean section (n = 15; 26%) was primarily due to maternal reasons. Functional insulin treatment prior to conception, modular diabetes group education, specific patient motivation for a near-normal glycaemia throughout pregnancy as well as interdisciplinary care allow pregnancy outcome in diabetic patients similar to that in non-diabetic women and thus the realisation of the 5-year targets of the WHO Declaration of St. Vincent 1989.

Huang, H. C., S. Y. Wang, et al. (2004). "Body image, maternal-fetal attachment, and choice of infant feeding method: A study in Taiwan." Birth-Issues in Perinatal Care 31(3): 183-188.
	
Humphreys, A. S., N. J. Thompson, et al. (1998). "Intention to breastfeed in low-income pregnant women: The role of social support and previous experience."  25(3): 169-174.
	Background: The purpose of this study was to describe the relationship between breastfeeding intention among socioeconomically disadvantaged pregnant women and maternal demographics, previous breastfeeding experience, and social support. Methods: A cross-sectional, convenience sampling strategy was employed for data collection. Low-income women (n = 1001) in a public hospital completed a six-page questionnaire about their infant feeding plans, demographics, and social support. Simple regression analyses were conducted to compare maternal breastfeeding intention with the hypothesized correlates. Results: Breastfeeding intention was positively correlated with older maternal age, higher education, more breastfeeding experience, Hispanic ethnicity, and hearing about breastfeeding benefits from family members, the baby's father, and lactation consultants, but not from other health professionals. Health professionals' attitudes were less influential on women's infant feeding decisions than the attitudes and beliefs of members of women's social support networks. When controlling for breastfeeding experience (none vs any), some findings varied, indicating a need for breastfeeding interventions tailored to women's level of experience. Conclusion: Use of peer counselors and lactation consultants, inclusion of a woman's family members in breastfeeding educational contacts, and creation of breastfeeding classes tailored to influential members of women's social support networks may improve breastfeeding rates among low-income women, especially those with no breastfeeding experience, more effectively than breastfeeding education to pregnant women that is solely conducted by health professionals.

Humphreys, N. K. (1989). American women's magazines : an annotated historical guide. New York ; London, Garland.
	
Hunter, T. and J. Santhiveeran. "Experiences of Material Hardships among TANF Leavers."
	Experiences of food insufficiencies, inadequate access to health care, & housing-related hardships represent how financial strain negatively impacts the entire family. The purpose of this study was to examine experiences of material hardships by TANF leavers & to understand factors that are associated with experiences of material hardship. This study examined the material hardships of TANF leavers using the 1999 National Survey of America's Families. Data for 220 families who exited TANF in 1997 were extracted. The majority of TANF leavers (53.2%) reported worrying about food, which was ranked as the number one hardship. Voluntary leavers tended to experience housing-related hardships more than involuntary leavers did. When compared to White leavers, other ethnic groups experienced a higher percentage of housing & healthcare-related hardships. 4 Tables, 22 References. Adapted from the source document. COPIES ARE AVAILABLE FROM: HAWORTH DOCUMENT DELIVERY CENTER, The Haworth Press, Inc., 10 Alice Street, Binghamton, NY 13904-1580.

Hupkens, C. L. H., R. A. Knibbe, et al. (1998). "Class differences in the food rules mothers impose on their children: a cross-national study." Social Science and Medicine 47(9): 1331-1339.
	
Hurstel, F. (2004). "Can we talk about a masculinity crisis?" PENSEE(339): 5-17.
	
Iannotti RJ, O. B. R., Spillman DM. (1994). "Parental and peer influences on food consumption of preschool African-American children." Perceptual and Motor Skills 79(2): 747-752.
	Sources of social influence on urban African-American preschool children's food consumption were coded from videotapes of noontime and evening meals of 42 children. The frequency of eating prompts was associated with the age of the child, the source (mothers, fathers, age mates, other adults, and day-care staff), and socioeconomic status. The success of the prompt in changing the child's eating behavior was dependent on the type of prompt

Ingram, J. and D. Johnson (2004). "A feasibility study of an intervention to enhance family support for breast feeding in a deprived area in Bristol, UK."  20(4): 367-379.
	Objective: to assess fathers' and grandmothers' knowledge of breast feeding and their ability to support successful breast feeding. To design a suitable intervention for fathers and grandmothers to support breast-feeding mothers, to assess the acceptability and feasibility of the intervention and monitor its likely effects on breast-feeding rates. Design: qualitative focus groups and interviews. Evaluation of the feasibility of an antenatal intervention. Setting: Community Health Centre and family homes in an area of relative social and economic deprivation in South Bristol, UK, from November 2001 to May 2003. Participants: 10 grandmothers and five fathers in focus groups and interviews. Twenty-nine families in the intervention. Intervention: an antenatal intervention for grandmothers or partners to support breast feeding, which combined the benefits and mechanics of breast feeding with ways of providing support for breast feeding. Findings: using an antenatal session based around a leaflet, specifically written for grandmothers and partners, and including a demonstration of good breast-feeding positioning and attachment in addition to the discussion of specific issues around the health benefits and mechanics of breast feeding was found to be acceptable, useful and enjoyable by all participants, particularly for first-time parents. The importance of fathers and grandmothers in providing emotional and practical support for breast-feeding mothers is highlighted, since those who were still breast feeding at eight weeks all felt that they were receiving similar or better support postnatally than they were antenatally. Significantly more intervention mothers were breast feeding their babies at eight weeks than in the wider practice population of mothers outside the study who intended to breast feed. Fathers' attitudes to breast feeding postnatally were fairly similar to those before the baby was born with breast feeding in public and knowing how much milk the baby was getting having the most influence on whether they felt that their partner should continue to breast feed. Implications for practice: this type of intervention could be part of a multifaceted approach towards improving breast-feeding initiation and continuation, particularly in areas of low prevalence. Health professionals should be opportunistic about involving other family members in discussions about breast feeding whenever possible, both antenatally and postnatally. (C) 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Ingram, J., D. Johnson, et al. (2002). "Breastfeeding in Bristol: teaching good positioning, and support from fathers and families."  18(2): 87-101.
	Objectives: to determine whether a specific 'hands-off' breastfeeding technique, based on the physiology of suckling and clinical experience, if taught to mothers in the immediate postnatal period, improves their chances of breastfeeding successfully and reduces the incidence of problems. To investigate the factors associated with breastfeeding at two and six weeks postpartum using logistic regression analysis. Design: a non-randomised prospective cohort phased intervention study. Setting: subjects recruited from one postnatal ward in St. Michael's Hospital, Bristol from October 1996 to November 1998. Participants: 1400 South Bristol mothers who were breastfeeding on discharge from hospital. Three hundred and ninety-five of these mothers were scored for efficiency of using the breastfeeding technique. Intervention: a 'hands- off' breastfeeding technique was taught to midwives in hospital who subsequently taught mothers in their care. Measurements: frequencies of exclusive and 'any breastfeeding' at two and six weeks from questionnaires sent to mothers at home, and incidence of breastfeeding problems. Findings: significant increases were observed in the proportion of mothers exclusively breastfeeding at two weeks (P < 0.001) and six weeks (P=0.02) and in 'any breastfeeding' rates (P=0.005) at two weeks after the technique intervention. The incidence of mothers feeling that they did 'not have enough milk' (perceived milk insufficiency) decreased significantly after the breastfeeding technique had been taught (P=0.02). Logistic regression analysis produced a model which showed that mothers with high scores for the "hands-off technique were significantly more likely to be breastfeeding at six weeks compared with those who did not use all the elements of the technique (OR 2.4; CI 1.3, 43). Factors associated with continuing to breastfeed at two and six weeks postpartum were also investigated using logistic regression. At two weeks, the significant factors associated with breastfeeding included mothers feeling that they had a 'plentiful milk supply' (OR 3.3; CI 2.1, S.3), not using a dummy (OR 2.6; CI 1.6, 4.0), not giving the baby any other fluid in hospital (OR 2A; CI 1.5, 3.8) and receiving enough support for breastfeeding from hospital staff (OR 2.1; CI 1.3, 3.5). By six weeks, in addition to these factors, the encouragement from a supportive partner, other family members and health professionals in enabling women to continue to breastfeed was found to show the largest associations with the maintenance of breastfeeding [(OR 37.2; CI 17.3, 80.2) for all three encouraging (327/817; 40% of breastfeeders) compared with no encouragement (67/817; 8% of breastfeeders)]. Conclusions: in the immediate postnatal period, if mothers are taught good breastfeeding technique by midwives in a 'hands-off' style, which enables mothers to position and attach their babies for themselves, and which is based on a physiological approach, breastfeeding rates are increased and the incidence of perceived milk insufficiency decreases. Successful breastfeeding in the early weeks was associated both with practices and support in hospital and with factors at home including not using dummies and having a supportive partner, family and health professionals who are encouraging breastfeeding. Implications for practice: teaching mothers how to breastfeed in a 'hands-off' way is important in empowering mothers to 'do it for themselves' and in improving breastfeeding rates. Widespread adoption of consistent good practice is achievable following a brief workshop teaching session. Using the 'breastfeeding score checklist' may help midwives to assess a breastfeed more accurately and determine which aspects need improving. Health professionals should aim to educate all key family members, whenever an opportunity arises both during pregnancy and postnatally, in the benefits of breast milk for babies in the first few months of life and how to encourage and support a mother in the early weeks of breastfeeding. (C) 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Ingram, J., D. Johnson, et al. (2003). "South Asian grandmothers' influence on breast feeding in Bristol." Midwifery 19(4): 318-327.
	
Ingram, J., M. Woolridge, et al. (2001). "Breastfeeding: it is worth trying with the second baby."  358(9286): 986-987.
	Mothers who experience breastfeeding difficulties with their first babies and give up breastfeeding are less likely to breastfeed subsequent babies than mothers who do not experience such difficulties. We carried out a longitudinal study of 22 mothers in which milk output was measured at I week and 4 weeks after giving birth to their first and second babies. Significantly more breast milk was produced at I week for the second lactation (an increase of 31% [95% CI 11-51%]) and the net increase was greatest for those with the lowest milk output on the first occasion (90% [30-149%]). They spent less time feeding their second baby (a decrease of 20% [-34 to -5%]). This increased efficiency of milk transfer was also evident at 4 weeks. Health professionals should encourage women to breastfeed all their children, whatever their experience with their first child.

IOM (2004). Parents can play a role in preventing childhood obesity, Institute of Medicine of the National Academies.
	
Ishii, K. a. J. N. (2002). "The Housewife Is Born: the Establishment of the Notion and Identity of the Shufu in Modern Japan." Japanese Studies 22(1): 35-47.
	The Japanese housewife, or shufu, a concept borrowed from the West during the Meiji Restoration, exemplified women's self-sacrifice in the form of thrifty household management as part of strictly defined gender roles; but the concept broadened during the Taisho era through such women's magazines as Shufu no Tomo [Housewives' companion] to include self-improvement.

Ito, S. and A. Lee (2003). "Drug excretion into breast milk - Overview." Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews 55(5): 617-627.
	
Jachimiak, P. (2006). "Masculinity and men's lifestyle magazines." MEDIA CULTURE & SOCIETY 28(1): 151-152.
	
Jackson, D. (1990). Unmasking masculinity : a critical autobiography. London ; Boston, Unwin Hyman.
	
Jackson, D., J. Mannix, et al. (2005). "Overweight and obese children: mothers' strategies." Journal of Advanced Nursing 52(1): 6-13.
	
Jackson, D., J. Mannix, et al. (2005). "Overweight and obese children: mothers' strategies."  52(1): 6-13.
	Aim. This paper reports a study exploring the strategies a group of mothers of overweight and obese children were using and planned to use in the future to assist their children to achieve a healthy weight. Background. Over the past two decades, the prevalence of childhood obesity has grown exponentially to become a major public health concern. Extant literature suggests that childhood obesity is associated with a range of physical, social and psychological effects, including poor self-esteem, depression, social isolation, and cardio-vascular and other morbidity. Parents are known to be important in determining early eating and exercise habits, and their involvement is crucial to achieving positive child health outcomes. Methods. An exploratory-descriptive design informed by feminist research principles shaped the study, which was carried out in 2003-2004. Eleven mothers meeting the inclusion criteria took part in in-depth interviews. These were transcribed, and qualitatively analysed. Findings. Participants revealed sound understandings of the concept and ramifications of obesity. They had initiated a range of strategies including role modelling, developing opportunities for increased physical activity, reducing the use of junk food, and heightened awareness of how they used food. Participants viewed the problem as a family rather than an individual problem, and aimed many of the interventions at the entire family to avoid targeting the focus child. Conclusions. Further research into how childhood obesity is managed within the context of family life is needed. Specifically, additional perspectives on how mothers from various socio-cultural groups address childhood obesity within family life, and longitudinal studies to explore the efficacy and sustainability of family-based lifestyle changes that are made in response to concerns about child weight issues. Additional research to explore the type and nature of family support that can best assist families to achieve sustainable lifestyle improvements is needed.

Jackson, P. (1991). "The Cultural Politics of Masculinity - Towards a Social Geography." Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 16(2): 199-213.
	
Jackson, P. (1991). "Cultural politics of masculinity: towards a social geography." Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 16: 199-213.
	
Jackson, P. (1995). "Changing geographics of consumption." Environment and Planning A 27(12): 1875-1876.
	
Jackson, P. (1999). "Commodity cultures: the traffic in things." Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 24(1): 95-108.
	Focusing on the commodification of various forms of cultural difference, this payer reviews recent work within the 'globalization' and 'creolization' paradigms, outlining an agenda for future research. Rather than condemning commodification as an unwarranted threat to the 'authenticity' of local cultures, the paper argues for a more complex understanding of people's relationship with the world of goods. Using a variety of examples, it is argued that the 'traffic in things' is associated with a wide range of meanings and a diversity of responses. Informed by recent debates in anthropology and material culture studies, it is suggested that geographical metaphors (such as distance and displacement) provide a more productive way of engaging with contemporary commodity cultures than do visual metaphors (such as unveiling or unmasking). Other means of transcending the distinction between cultural and economic geographies are also discussed.

Jackson, P. (2002). "Commercial cultures: transcending the cultural and the economic." Progress in Human Geography 26(1): 3-18.
	In recent years there have been repeated calls for a convergence between 'the cultural' and 'the economic'. This paper provides a specific take on these issues through an exploration of the contested geographies of contemporary commercial culture. Traditionally, 'culture' has been associated with meaning and creativity, with works of the imagination and aesthetic practices that are far removed from the pursuit of economic profit. By contrast, 'commerce' has conventionally been regarded with disdain by critically minded social scientists, signalling a vulgar and materialistic world, devoid of morality, where human agency is subordinated to the logic of capital. This paper aims to challenge such dualistic thinking by exploring the commodification of cultural difference and by demonstrating that the rational calculus of the market is inescapably embedded in a range of cultural practices. The argument moves from an analysis of linear commodity chains to an exploration of more complex circuits and networks, illustrated with examples from contemporary commodity culture, looking specifically at the food and fashion sectors. Rather than demonstrating complexity for its own sake, the objective is to identify new forms of understanding and new possibilities for intervention in what can sometimes seem like an all-encompassing 'consumer culture' where every act of resistance is immediately recuperated in successive rounds of commodification.

Jackson, P. (2004). "Local consumption cultures in a globalizing world." Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 29(2): 165-178.
	Focusing on the resilience of distinctive local consumption cultures, this paper challenges some of the more sweeping claims that have been advanced in the name of 'globalization'. Thinking about a 'globalizing' rather than a fully 'globalized' world encourages us to examine the deeply contested nature of the concept and to explore the geographically uneven nature of recent economic, political and cultural transformations. This paper approaches globalization as a site of struggle rather than as an established fact, emphasizing the need for empirically grounded studies of the impact of 'globalization' on consumer cultures in different geographical contexts. The paper examines the way that producers have 'customized' their products for different markets (drawing on evidence from China and South Africa). It then reviews case study evidence from three contrasting consumption cultures: consumption and 'public culture' in India, 'consumer nationalism' in China, and 'artful consumption' in Russia. The paper concludes by identifying some current debates and outlining some directions for future research, including a re-emphasis on consumption and material culture; an exploration of consumption as social practice; the delineation of commodity-specific consumption cultures; and some reflections on the political, ethical and methodological issues that are being raised in contemporary consumption research.

Jackson, P. and K. Brooks (1999). "Making sense of men's lifestyle magazines." Environment and Planning D-Society & Space 17(3): 353-368.
	In this paper we document the rapid growth of the British men's 'lifestyle' magazine market and explore its significance in terms of men's changing identities and gender relations. By drawing on focus-group discussions with men of different class, age, and regional and ethnic backgrounds, we contrast two ways of thinking about these magazines. The first employs a distinction between 'surface' and 'depth', and suggests that the magazines signal only superficial changes in contemporary masculinities. The second approach identifies a series of discursive repertoires on which men draw in 'making sense' of the magazines. Four such repertoires are highlighted, which involve notions of 'honesty: 'naturalness: 'openness: and 'harmless fun'. The analysis suggests that although some respondents saw the magazines' commercial success in terms of a backlash against 'feminist extremism' and 'political correctness', most denied their wider political significance. We conclude that the magazines provide their readers with a form of 'constructed certitude' that represents a commodified response to men's current gender anxieties.

Jackson, P., R. P. del Aguila, et al. (2006). "Retail restructuring and consumer choice 2. Understanding consumer choice at the household level." Environment and Planning A 38(1): 47-67.
	This paper complements the preceding one by Clarke et al, which looked at the long-term impact of retail restructuring on consumer choice at the local level. Whereas the previous paper was based on quantitative evidence from survey research, this paper draws on the qualitative phases of the same three-year study, and in it we aim to understand how the changing forms of retail provision are experienced at the neighbourhood and household level. The empirical material is drawn from focus groups, accompanied shopping trips, diaries, interviews, and kitchen visits with eight households in two contrasting neighbourhoods in the Portsmouth area. The data demonstrate that consumer choice involves judgments of taste, quality, and value as well as more 'objective' questions of convenience, price, and accessibility. These judgments are related to households' differential levels of cultural capital and involve ethical and moral considerations as well as more mundane considerations of practical utility. Our evidence suggests that many of the terms that are conventionally advanced as explanations of consumer choice (such as 'convenience', 'value', and 'habit') have very different meanings according to different household circumstances. To understand these meanings requires us to relate consumers' at-store behaviour to the domestic context in which their consumption choices are embedded. Bringing theories of practice to bear on the nature of consumer choice, our research demonstrates that consumer choice between stores can be understood in terms of accessibility and convenience, whereas choice within stores involves notions of value, price, and quality. We also demonstrate that choice between and within stores is strongly mediated by consumers' household contexts, reflecting the extent to which shopping practices are embedded within consumers' domestic routines and complex everyday lives. The paper concludes with a summary of the overall findings of the project, and with a discussion of the practical and theoretical implications of the study.

Jackson, P. and B. Holbrook (1995). "Multiple meanings: Shopping and the cultural politics of identity." Environment and Planning A 27(12): 1913-1930.
	Many studies of contemporary consumption have tended to reduce a complex and contested process to a momentary and isolated act of purchase. A similar kind of reduction is common in many semiotic analyses of shopping malls and in studies of advertising which assume an audience's readings rather than investigating them empirically. Drawing on field research in north London, we provide evidence from focus group discussions of the social use of shopping centres and of the multiple meanings of such apparently mundane activities for the consumers themselves. Five themes are highlighted concerning skill, style, and shopping; shopping as a source of pleasure and anxiety; shopping as a socially situated activity; consumers as knowing, active subjects; and shopping as a highly and complexly gendered activity. These themes illustrate that the consumption process condenses many aspects of our contemporary identities including the dynamics of class and ethnicity, gender and generation, and the cultural politics of space and place.

Jackson, P. e. a. (2001). Making Sense of Men's Magazines. Cambridge, Polity.
	
Jacobson, B. and A. Amos (1985). When smoke gets in your eyes : cigarette advertising policy and coverage of smoking and health in women's magazines. London, BMA Professional Division.
	
James, A. (1981). Concoctions, Confections and Conceptions. Popular Culture Past and Present. A. Waites and e. al. London, Croom Helm.
	
James, A. (1996). "Learning to be friends - Methodological lessons from participant observation among English schoolchildren." Childhood 3(3): 313-330.
	Although the socially constructed character of childhood is now well established, the methodological challenges this raises remain so far relatively unremarked. Drawing on a recent period of fieldwork, carried out among English schoolchildren aged between 4 and 9 years old, this article explores the contribution of participant observation as a research method to the study of childhood. Two key aspects are discussed. Taking children's friendships as its focus, the article argues, first, that participant observation permits a more comprehensive understanding of the process of friendship making than traditional sociometric techniques. Second, it shows that, for the researcher, the remembered experiences of participation and observation allow for a continued reflexive critique to be made of the data, a learning process which patterns the path through which children's friendships are themselves constructed.

James, A. (2000). "'Childhood' in 'Crisis'." Sociological Research Online 5(2): U190-U191.
	
James, A. (2005). "Doing research with children and young people." SOCIOLOGICAL REVIEW 53(2): 375 - 377.
	
James, A. (2005). "The reality of research with children and young people." SOCIOLOGICAL REVIEW 53(2): 375-377.
	
James, A. and P. Christensen (2000). Research with Children. London, RoutledgeFalmer.
	
James, A. and A. James (1999). "Pump up the volume - Listening to children in separation and divorce." Childhood 6(2): 189-206.
	This article seeks to build on the theoretical advances made by the new sociology of childhood by exploring how recently postulated models of childhood might be applied to an analysis and understanding of an important issue relating to children and childhood which is currently the subject of considerable debate - the welfare of children in separation and divorce and the policy and practice issues surrounding this. It is argued that while these theoretical models offer some valuable insights, their explanatory power and applicability to issues affecting the lives of children can be considerably enhanced by an empirical focus on the role of law as a key influence in the social construction of childhood and by the addition of a temporal dimension to reflect the dynamic nature of such a process.

James, A. and A. James (2001). "Childhood: Toward a theory of continuity and change." Annals of the American Academy of Politicla and Social Science(575): 25-37.
	The socially constructed character of childhood is, by now, recognized as an important factor in shaping children's everyday experiences. It is no longer possible to see childhood simply as a common and universal biological phase in the life course. However, at the same time, it is being increasingly recognized that although acknowledgment of the social and cultural diversity of children's lives is important, there remain many things that children do share as occupants of the conceptual space of childhood. Although contemporary sociological theorizing about childhood has highlighted this tension, it has, as yet, offered few solutions. In this article, it is proposed that by examining the role of law and social policy over time from an interdisciplinary perspective, it is possible to account for both change and continuity in childhood as a structural space and, in turn, to see this as being the source of the diversities and commonalties that pattern children's everyday lives.

James, A. and A. James (2001). "Tightening the net: children, community, and control." British Journal of Sociology 52(2): 211-228.
	The recent move to revitalize social democracy in the UK under the New Labour government, explored by Giddens as ;the Third Way', embraces many of Etzioni's ideas on communitarianism. The principles that emerge from these political philosophies, such as the involvement of local communities in policy consultations and implementation, have largely been welcomed as a reflection of the aim of revitalizing civic society in the context of a range of social policies. It is argued, however, that for children, contrary to this general trend, many of these policies represent attempts to increase the social control of children. Their effect has been to restrict children's agency and their rights, rather than to increase their participation as citizens, and thus, in spite of the requirements of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, children continue to be marginalized.

James, A. and A. James (2004). Constructing Childhood. Theory, Policy and Social Practice, Palgrave.
	
James, A. and A. L. James (2004). Constructing Childhood, Palgrave Macmillan.
	
James, A. J., A, L. (2004). "Constructing Childhood: Theory, Policy and Social Practice."
	
James, A. P., Alan, Ed. (1997). Constructing and Reconstructing Childhood. London, RoutledgeFalmer.
	
Jameson, R. (1987). Purity and power at the Victorian dinner party. The Archaeology of Meanings. I. Hodder. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press: 55-65.
	
Jefferson, A. (2006). "Breaking down barriers - examining health promoting behaviour in the family. Kellogg's Family Health Study 2005." Nutrition Bulletin 31: 60-64.
	
Jeffery, A. N., L. D. Voss, et al. (2005). "Parents' awareness of overweight in themselves and their children: cross sectional study within a cohort (EarlyBird 21)." British Medical Journal 330: 23-24.
	
Jenkins, K. a. M. K. M. (1998). "Knowing Their Place: the Political Socialisation of Maori Women in New Zealand through Schooling Policy and Practice, 1867-1969." Women's History Review 7(1): 85-105.
	The education provided to Maori children in both the day schools run by the Ministry of Education and denominational boarding schools in 19th-century New Zealand was intended to inculcate the language and culture of the European colonizers in Maori children. Female boarding school students in particular appeared to present the best agents for bringing European culture to the Maori communities that they would rejoin as wives and mothers. Some of the girls' boarding schools, such as the Hukarere Native School for Girls, provided instruction in Latin, algebra, and history as well as dressmaking and cooking. The Ministry of Education regarded English and vocational instruction in skills appropriate to Maoris' subordinate status as sufficient, and ministry inspectors pressured schools to decrease academic instruction, but boarding schools harbored currents of resistance to assimilation and a history of achievement that helped prepare Maori women to take leading roles when in the 1980's the Maori asserted their right to educate their children in Maori and about Maori culture.

Johansson, B. (2004). Consumption and Ethics in a Children's Magazine. Beyond the Competent Child: Exploring contemporary childhoods in the Nordic welfare societies. H. Brembeck, B. Johansson and J. Kampmann. Roskilde, Roskilde University Press: 229-249.
	
Johnsen, S., P. Cloke, et al. "Transitory spaces of care: serving homeless people on the street."
	Within a rapidly expanding body of work exploring the role of hostels and day centres in the accommodation and care of homeless people, very little attention has been paid to the dynamics of the soup run. Soup runs have, however, recently become a focus of concern for the British Government who, echoing 19th century debates regarding the 'inappropriate' distribution of alms, argue that they are undermining attempts to reduce levels of rough sleeping by making it easier for people to survive on the streets. Drawing upon a postal survey, together with a series of interviews and participant observations, this paper develops an in-depth account of soup runs in Britain and explores the dynamics of the spaces involved. It argues that far from simply sustaining street homelessness, soup runs provide an important yet very complex series of spaces of care in the contemporary city. By their very nature, however-having a non-interventionist ethos, being transitory, and open to the public eye-the dynamics of these spaces differ in significant ways from those typical of geographically fixed spaces of care.

Johnsen, S., P. Cloke, et al. "Transitory spaces of care: serving homeless people on the street."
	Within a rapidly expanding body of work exploring the role of hostels and day centres in the accommodation and care of homeless people, very little attention has been paid to the dynamics of the soup run. Soup runs have, however, recently become a focus of concern for the British Government who, echoing 19th century debates regarding the 'inappropriate' distribution of alms, argue that they are undermining attempts to reduce levels of rough sleeping by making it easier for people to survive on the streets. Drawing upon a postal survey, together with a series of interviews and participant observations, this paper develops an in-depth account of soup runs in Britain and explores the dynamics of the spaces involved. It argues that far from simply sustaining street homelessness, soup runs provide an important yet very complex series of spaces of care in the contemporary city. By their very nature, however-having a non-interventionist ethos, being transitory, and open to the public eye-the dynamics of these spaces differ in significant ways from those typical of geographically fixed spaces of care.

Johnson, B. and A. Hackett (1997). "Eating habits of 11-14 year old schoolchildren living in less affluent areas of Liverpool, UK." Journal of Human Nutrition & Dietetics 10(2): 135-144.
	
Johnson, M. K. (2005). "Family Roles and Work Values: Processes of Selection and Change."
	This study focuses on whether marriage & parenthood influence work values after taking into account the influence of work values on family formation. In a recent panel of young adults (N = 709), stronger extrinsic & weaker intrinsic work values during adolescence predicted marriage & parenthood 9 years out of high school. Controlling these relationships, wives, but not husbands, came to attach less importance to extrinsic rewards, & both husbands & wives attached less importance to intrinsic rewards, compared to single men & women. Fathers came to place greater importance on extrinsic rewards than men who had not become parents. The effect of motherhood on extrinsic values depended upon marital status, with positive effects only evident among single mothers. The findings are discussed in terms of their implications for models of work-family relationships & understanding the meaning of contemporary family roles, especially motherhood & fatherhood. 3 Tables, 1 Figure, 59 References. Adapted from the source document.

Johnson, R. and G. Harris (2004). "A preliminary study of the predictors of feeding problems in late infancy."  22(3): 183-188.
	The aim of this small study was to investigate three hypothesised predictors of feeding difficulties in late infancy. Oral-motor-skill function, illness, and mealtime negativity were investigated as possible predictors. Eighteen mothers were visited when their infants were approximately 18 months old (range 15-21 months), and asked to complete three retrospective questionnaires relating to their child's temperament, feeding habits and practices, oral-motor-skills and illness. Illness was found to be the best predictor of feeding difficulty, the infants who experienced the highest incidence of illness, particularly vomiting, had the highest scores for food neophobia and food refusal.

Johnson, S., A. Burrows, et al. (2004). "'Does my bump look big in this'? The meaning of bodily changes for first-time mothers-to-be."  9(3): 361-374.
	Research on the impact of bodily changes during the transition to motherhood is contradictory. The aim of the study reported here was to provide more useful insights by employing an inductive qualitative approach. Interviews with six women in the latter stages of pregnancy were analysed drawing upon aspects of interpretative phenomenological analysis and Foucauldian discourse analysis. These analyses suggest generally negative consequence, and discursive constructions that have a greater potential to be limiting than empowering. The impact of gender ideologies on women's ways of being while pregnant is highlighted, as is the importance of developing alternative representations of the female, and the pregnant body, which do not pathologize women.

Johnson, S. L. and L. L. Birch (X1994). "Parents and Childrens Adiposity and Eating Style." Pediatrics 94(5): 653-661.
	Objective. To investigate children's ability to self-regulate energy intake and to determine whether individual differences in the precision of food intake regulation are related to children's anthropometric measures. We collected information pertaining to parental adiposity and dieting practices, as well as mothers' child-feeding practices. Of special interest was the degree of control imposed by mothers over their children's food intake. Our intent was to explore whether these variables might influence children's regulation of energy intake. Subjects and setting. Seventy-seven 3-5-year-old children who attended a university preschool setting and their parents participated in this experiment. Measurements and main results. Children completed controlled, two-part meals used to estimate their ability to adjust food intake in response to changes in caloric density of the diet. An eating index, reflecting children's precision in the ability to regulate energy intake, was correlated to children's anthropometric measures. These correlations provided evidence for a relation between children's body fat stores and their responsiveness to caloric density cues: Pearson correlation coefficients revealed that children with greater body fat stores were less able to regulate energy intake accurately. The best predictor of children's ability to regulate energy intake was parental control in the feeding situation: mothers who were more controlling of their children's food intake had children who showed less ability to self-regulate energy intake (r = -.67, P < .0001). Conclusions. These findings suggest that the optimal environment for children's development of self-control of energy intake is that in which parents provide healthy food choices but allow children to assume control of how much they consume.

Johnston, F. E., Ed. (1987). Nutritional anthropology. New York, A.R. Liss.
	
Jones, G. (2005). The thinking and behaviour of young adults (aged 16 - 25), Social Exclusion Unit - Home Office.
	
Jonsson, I. M., A. M. Wallin, et al. (2002). "Choice of food and food traditions in pre-war Bosnia-Herzegovina: Focus group interviews with immigrant women in Sweden." Ethnicity & Health 7(3): 149-161.
	
Jordan, P. L. and V. R. Wall (1990). "Breast-Feeding and Fathers - Illuminating the Darker Side."  17(4): 210-213.
	Although breastfeeding may be the best form of infant nutrition and be an important practice for mother and infant, it may be perceived as negative by the father and thus inhibit the development of the father-infant relationship. This study provides a summary of data from a longitudinal study of the male experience of expectant and new parenthood, and a summary of the literature on breastfeeding and fathers. Fathers' concerns about breastfeeding included the lack of opportunity to develop a relationship with their child, feeling inadequate, and being separated from their mate by the baby. The professional literature fails adequately to represent the negative aspects of breastfeeding for fathers. The parents' literature contains one father's candid and humorous account that caregivers might use, together with other techniques, to make parents aware of these aspects.

Jordan, T. (1988). Agony columns. London, Optima.
	
Joseph, H., S. Magura, et al. "Homelessness, substance misuse, and access to public entitlements in a soup kitchen population." Substance Use and Misuse 38(3-6): 645-68.
	Examined the effects of homelessness on access to public entitlements (Medicaid and food stamp programmes) in a soup kitchen population. Five hypotheses,focusing on the effects of housing status (literal homelessness, unstable housing, and domiciled), frequency of drug /heavy alcohol use, drug /alcohol-user treatment history and childcare responsibilities on access to Medicaid and food stamp programmes were tested. Found that both literal homelessness and unstable housing were associated with less access to Medicaid and food stamps.(Original abstract - amended)

Julier, A. and L. Lindenfeld (2005). "Mapping Men onto the Menu: Masculinities and Food." Food and Foodways 13(1): 1-15.
	
Kaplan, J. S., S. Iqbal, et al. (1999). "Is pregnancy in diabetic women associated with folate deficiency?"  22(7): 1017-1021.
	OBJECTIVE - To determine whether folate metabolism in pregnant diabetic women is significantly different from that in pregnant nondiabetic women, thus predisposing them to having offspring with major congenital anomalies. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS - A total of 31 pregnant diabetic women and 54 pregnant nondiabetic control subjects were studied at their first prenatal visits. Dietary folate intake, serum folate, red blood cell folate, urinary folate, and homocysteine were measured and compared after controlling for folate supplementation. Among diabetic women, the relationships among parameters of folate metabolism and glycemic control were also assessed. RESULTS - There were no significant differences between the pregnant diabetic and nondiabetic women for any measures of folate metabolism after accounting for folate supplementation. In addition, among diabetic women, there were no associations among parameters of folate metabolism and glycemic control. CONCLUSIONS - Abnormal folate metabolism does not appear to occur in pregnant diabetic women. It is unlikely that deranged folate metabolism explains the higher incidence of major anomalies in infants of diabetic mothers. These results do not diminish the importance of periconception folate supplementation or preclude other possible scenarios that could restrict folate use by the embryo, leading to congenital anomalies.

Kashiwagi, M., C. Schafer, et al. (2005). "Opiate addiction and breastfeeding - Review of the literature and recommendations." Geburtshilfe Und Frauenheilkunde 65(10): 938-941.
	
Kawachi, I. a. K., B.P, (1997). "Income Inequality and Health: Pathways and Mechanisms,." Health Services Research 34((1) Part 2): 215-217.
	
Kearney, M., J. M. Kearney, et al. (2000). "Sociodemographic determinants of perceived influences on food choice in a nationally representative sample of Irish adults." Public Health Nutrition 3(2): 219-226.
	
Keller, K. (1994). Mothers and work in popular American magazines. Westport, Conn. ; London, Greenwood Press.
	
Kelly, M. (1993). "Infant-Feeding in Emergencies."  17(2): 110-121.
	Recent experience of emergency relief operations in middle-income countries has shown that infant feeding issues can greatly complicate attempts to protect infant health. The two main problems are: how to protect and support breastfeeding in communities where it is no longer the norm and how to assist artificially fed infants without exposing them to the dramatically increased risks associated with artificial feeding under disaster conditions. This article explores the underlying issues and makes a number of recommendations for policy and programmes.

Kelly, Y. J. and R. G. Watt (2005). "Breast-feeding initiation and exclusive duration at 6 months by social class - results from the Millennium Cohort Study."  8(4): 417-421.
	Objectives: To assess breast-feeding initiation and rates of exclusive breast-feeding for the first 6 months after birth, and to examine social class differences in breast-feeding rates. Design: First sweep of a longitudinal population-based survey, the Millennium Cohort Study. Setting: Four countries of the UK. Subjects: Subjects were 18125 singletons born over a 12-month period spanning 2000-01. Data were collected by parental interview on the initiation of breast-feeding and exclusivity at 1, 4 and 6 months after birth. Results: Overall breast-feeding was initiated for 71% of babies, and by 1, 4 and 6 months of age the proportions being exclusively breast-fed were 34%, 3% and 0.3%, respectively. There were clear social class differences and mothers with routine jobs with the least favourable working conditions were more than four times less likely (odds ratio (OR) 0.22, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.18-0.29) to initiate breast-feeding compared with women in higher managerial and professional occupations. Women in routine jobs were less likely to exclusively breast-feed their infants at 1 month (OR 0.42, 95% CI 0.36-0-50) and 4 months (OR 0.5, 95% CI 0.31-0-77) compared with women in higher managerial and professional occupations. Conclusions: Clear social class differences in breast-feeding initiation and exclusivity for the first 4 months were apparent in this large UK sample. By 6 months, less than 1% of babies were being exclusively breast-fed. A co-ordinated multi-faceted strategy is required to promote breast-feeding, particularly among lower-income women.

Kemmer, D. (2000). "'Tradition and change in domestic roles and food preparation.'" Sociology 34(2): 323 - 333.
	
Kemp, P. (1997). "Supporting the supporters: the learning and supervision needs of unqualified support staff in a supported housing scheme for people with mental health problems."
	An inter-relationship between how residents experience 'being supported' and the learning needs of support staff is identified, teased out and described. Action research methods were found to be a useful means of generating areas of learning that appeared to be most relevant in this particular work context. (Original abstract-amended)

Kennedy, L. A. (2001). "Community involvement at what cost? Local appraisal of a pan-European nutrition promotion programme in low-income neighbourhoods.'" Health Promotion International 16(1): 35-45.
	
Kent, R. and R. A. A. a. Kent (1987). Agony : problem pages through the ages. London, W.H. Allen.
	
Kerr, M. and N. Charles (1986). "Servers and Providers: the distribution of food within the family." SOCIOLOGICAL REVIEW 34(3): 115-157.
	
Khare, R. S. (1980). "Food as Nutrition and Culture: Notes towards an anthropological methodlogy." Social Science Information 19(3): 519-42.
	
Khoury, A. J., A. Hinton, et al. (2002). "Improving breastfeeding knowledge, attitudes, and practices of WIC clinic staff." Public Health Reports 117(5): 453-462.
	
Khoury, A. J., S. W. Moazzem, et al. (2005). "Breast-feeding initiation in low-income women: Role of attitudes, support, and perceived control." Womens Health Issues 15(2): 64-72.
	
Kimmel, M. S. (1988). Changing men : new directions in research on men and masculinity. Newbury Park, Calif. ; London, Sage.
	
Kingston, B. (1996). "When Did We Teach Our Girls to Cook?" Australian Cultural History 15: 89-101.
	There was little formal cooking training available to girls in colonial Australia. The first private cooking school dates from around 1883, although cooking books were available before then. The introduction of the refrigerator and the gas stove took much of the drudgery out of cooking and encouraged more women into the kitchen. Australian cuisine underwent further changes when migrants from non-British countries began to arrive in significant numbers after World War II, and as young Australians began to travel overseas in the 1950's. Formal cooking classes were introduced to schools early in the 1900's, and the cooking books used in these classes chronicle the changes in Australian culinary practices.

Kirca, S. (1999). "Popular Culture: from Being an Enemy of the Feminist Movement to a Tool for Women's Liberation ?" Journal of American Culture 22(3): 101-107.
	Cultural theorists have argued that popular culture deprecates women, but in Turkey the magazines Kim and Kadinca attempt to engage women's issues by combining the discourses of feminism and popular culture.

Kirca, S. (2000). "Kim and Kadinca: Bridging the Gap between Feminism and Women's Magazines." New Perspectives on Turkey(22): 61-84.
	Examines the ways that patriarchal, commercial, and feminist discourses and interests are incorporated into two Turkish women's magazines, Kim and Kadinca, in order to draw conclusions about feminism and women in Turkey from the 1970's to the 1990's. Although the contribution of the magazines is limited, as the representation of feminism is a selective and partial one made by commercial media companies, the approach of the magazines (suggesting alternative rather than ideal models for Turkish women), their acceptance of diversity and contradiction, and their realistic advice in response to questions concerning sexual harassment and domestic violence make them progressive voices in the effort to encourage self-esteem among Turkish women.

Kirca, S. (2001). "Turkish Women's Magazines: the Popular Meets the Political." Women's Studies International Forum 24(3-4): 457-468.
	Discusses the way concepts of feminism and femininity, often considered oppositional, intersect within two contemporary Turkish women's magazines, Kim and Kadinca. The methodology is derived from feminist critical theory and cultural studies and includes textual analysis of the magazines as well as structured interviews with their editors. A range of potentially competing interests - of editors, owners, and advertisers - is identified in the production of the magazines, and the ways in which these are managed and negotiated is explored. The combining of feminist discourses with patriarchal and commercial discourses offers a repertoire of subjectivities to women readers, some complementary and others contradictory.

Kirca, S. h. (2000). Popularizing feminism : a comparative case study of British and Turkish women's magazines, University of Warwick.
	
Kirk, M. C. and A. H. Gillespie (1990). "Factors Affecting Food Choices of Working Mothers with Young Families."  22(4): 161-168.
	A two-stage data collection method (focus group interviews followed by an individual probing technique) was used to study influences on working mothers' food choices for their families. Data were analyzed using a thematic content approach through which five categories or perspectives were identified. Three of these perspectives - "nutritionist," "economist," and "manager-organizer" - have been commonly addressed in nutrition education. Two additional perspectives-"meaning-creator" and "family diplomat" - that affect working mothers' food choices were identified. The working mothers also revealed that they experienced guilt related to family meal-time activities.

Klesges, R., R. Stein, et al. (1991). "Parental influence on food selection in young children and its relationships to childhood obesity." American Journal of Clinical  Nutrition 53: 859-64.
	This investigation evaluated the impact of parental influences on children’s food selections and the impact of childhood obesity on these food choices. Subjects were 53 young children of various weight status. Foods ranging widely in nutritional values were offered to each child for lunch. The children were again offered foods but were told that their mothers would be monitoring their selections. Finally, mothers were allowed to modify their children’s last food choices. Results indicated that parental influences have a marked effect on food selection; both the threat of parental monitoring and actual parental monitoring lowered the number of nonnutritious foods chosen and total caloric content ofthe meal. The obesity status ofthe mothers and children had no impact on these results. The implication of these results for future intervention efforts are discussed.

Klesges, R. C., R. J. Stein, et al. (1991). "Parental influence on food selection in young children and its relationships to childhood obesity." Am J Clin Nutr 53(4): 859-64.
	This investigation evaluated the impact of parental influences on children's food selections and the impact of childhood obesity on these food choices. Subjects were 53 young children of various weight status. Foods ranging widely in nutritional values were offered to each child for lunch. The children were again offered foods but were told that their mothers would be monitoring their selections. Finally, mothers were allowed to modify their children's last food choices. Results indicated that parental influences have a marked effect on food selection; both the threat of parental monitoring and actual parental monitoring lowered the number of nonnutritious foods chosen and total caloric content of the meal. The obesity status of the mothers and children had no impact on these results. The implication of these results for future intervention efforts are discussed.

Kloeblen-Tarver, A. S., N. J. Thompson, et al. (2002). "Intent to breast-feed: The impact of attitudes, norms, parity, and experience." American Journal of Health Behavior 26(3): 182-187.
	
Knaak, S. (2005). "Breast-feeding, Bottle-feeding and Dr. Spock: The Shifting Context of Choice."
	In today's environment, breast-feeding represents both a medical gold standard for infant feeding & a moral gold standard for mothering. The morally charged character of this discourse makes the notion of choice in infant feeding particularly problematic & fraught with difficulty. From an historical content analysis of selected editions from 1946 to 1998 of Dr. Spock's famous child-care manual, this paper explicates the process through which the breast versus bottle discourse has shifted over the last half-century & how these shifts have shaped the context of choice within which mothers must make their infant-feeding decisions. 2 Tables, 56 References. Adapted from the source document.

Knaak, S. (2005). "Breast-feeding, bottle-feeding and Dr. Spock: The shifting context of choice." Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology-Revue Canadienne De Sociologie Et D Anthropologie 42(2): 197-216.
	
Knight, C. (2005). 'The Food Nature Intended You to Eat': Low Carbohydrate Diets and Primitivist Philosophy. The Atkins Diet and Philosophy: Chewing the Fat with Kant and Nietzche. L. Heldke, K. Mommer and C. Pineo. Chicago, Open Court: 43-56.
	
Knights, B. (1999). Writing masculinities : male narratives in twentieth-century fiction. Houndmills, Hampshire ; New York, Macmillan : St. Martin's Press.
	
Knijn, T. (1994). "Social Dilemmas in Images of Motherhood in the Netherlands."
	Analyzes the dilemma of the relationship between gender & individualization with regard to motherhood in the Netherlands, drawing on a content analysis of 3 volumes (1960-1980) of 2 leading women's magazines, Libelle & Margriet. The ambiguity of the individualization of mothers exists in magazine images of motherhood as well as in the relationship between attitudes & practices & in the conventions of mothers with individualistic attitudes. Nearly all the images of mothers presented mention two main obstacles: children's need to be taken care of at home, in their own environment, preferably by one of the parents, & the partner's position as breadwinner being taken for granted. 3 Tables, 15 References. Adapted from the source document.

Koerber, A. (2005). ""You just don't see enough normal" Critical perspectives on infant-feeding discourse and practice." Journal of Business and Technical Communication 19(3): 304-327.
	
Koivisto Hursti, U. K. (1999). "Factors influencing children's food choice." Annals of Medicine 31(SUPPL. 1): 26-32.
	Although food habits are not stable and unchanging during a person's lifetime, a base for healthy food habits can be created in early childhood. Children's food habits can be assumed to be influenced by their parents' food habits and choices. The aim of this article is to review factors influencing food choice in children as well as in adults. The results demonstrate that the development of children's food habits is influenced by a multitude of factors. Parents play an important role in the formation of food habits and preferences of young children. They can influence their children's food choice by making specific foods available, by acting as models for their children and by their behaviour in specific situations. Children tend to be afraid of new foods and do not readily accept them. However, experience is known to enhance preference, and earlier experiences of a particular food are the major determinants of the development of children's food acceptance patterns. Thus, parents should be encouraged to make healthy foods easily available to the child and serve these foods in positive mealtime situations in order to help their child to develop healthy food habits.

Kong, S. K. F. and D. T. F. Lee (2004). "Factors influencing decision to breastfeed." Journal of Advanced Nursing 46(4): 369-379.
	
Kools, E. J., C. Thijs, et al. (2005). "The behavioral determinants of breast-feeding in the Netherlands: Predictors for the initiation of breast-feeding." Health Education & Behavior 32(6): 809-824.
	
Kopytoff, I. (1986). The cultural biography of things: commoditization as process. The Social Life of Things. A. Appadurai. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press: 64-94.
	
Kozlowska, K. and L. Hanney (2002). "The network perspective: An integration of attachment and family systems theories." Family Process 41(3): 285-312.
	In this article we discuss the network paradigm as a useful base from which to integrate attachment and family systems theories. The network perspective refers to the application of general systems theory to living systems, and provides a framework that conceptualizes the dyadic and family systems as simultaneously distinct and interconnected. Network thinking requires that the clinician holds multiple perspectives in mind, considers each system level as both a part and a whole, and shifts the focus of attention between levels as required. Key epistemological issues that have hindered the integration of the theories are discussed. These include in-consistencies within attachment theory itself and confusion surrounding the theoretical conceptualizations of the relationship between attachment and family systems theories. Detailed information about attachment categories is provided using the Dynamic Maturational model. Case vignettes illustrating work with young children and their families explore the clinical implications of integrating attachment data into family therapy practice

Kramer, M. S. and R. Kakuma (2004). The optimal duration of exclusive breastfeeding - A systematic review. Protecting Infants through Human Milk. 554: 63-77.
	Although the health benefits of breastfeeding are acknowledged widely, opinions and recommendations are divided on the optimal duration of exclusive breastfeeding. We systematically reviewed available evidence concerning the effects on child health, growth, and development and on maternal health of exclusive breastfeeding for 6 months vs. exclusive breastfeeding for 3-4 months followed by mixed breastfeeding (introduction of complementary liquid or solid foods with continued breastfeeding) to 6 months. Two independent literature searches were conducted, together comprising the following databases: MEDLINE (as of 1966), Index Medicus (prior to 1966), CINAHL, HealthSTAR, BIOSIS, CAB Abstracts, EMBASE-Medicine, EMBASE-Psychology, Econlit, Index Medicus for the WHO Eastern Mediterranean Region, African Index Medicus, Lilacs (Latin American and Carribean literature), EBM Reviews-Best Evidence, the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, and the Cochrane Controlled Trials Register. No language restrictions were imposed. The two searches yielded a total of 2,668 unique citations. Contacts with experts in the field yielded additional published and unpublished studies. Studies were stratified according to study design (controlled trials vs. observational studies) and provenance (developing vs. developed countries). The main outcome measures were weight and length gain, weight-for-age and length-for-age z-scores, head circumference, iron status, gastrointestinal and respiratory infectious morbidity, atopic eczema, asthma, neuromotor development, duration of lactational amenorrhea, and maternal postpartum weight loss. Twenty independent studies meeting the selection criteria were identified by the literature search: 9 from developing countries (2 of which were controlled trials in Honduras) and 11 from developed countries (all observational studies). Neither the trials nor the observational studies suggest that infants who continue to be exclusively breastfed for 6 months show deficits in weight or length gain, although larger sample sizes would be required to rule out modest increases in the risk of undernutrition. The data are conflicting with respect to iron status but suggest that, at least in developing-country settings, where iron stores of newborn infants may be suboptimal, exclusive breastfeeding without iron supplementation through 6 months of age may compromise hematologic status. Based primarily on an observational analysis of a large randomized trial in Belarus, infants who continue exclusive breastfeeding for 6 months or more appear to have a significantly reduced risk of one or more episodes of gastrointestinal tract infection. No significant reduction in risk of atopic eczema, asthma, or other atopic outcomes has been demonstrated in studies from Finland, Australia, and Belarus. Data from the two Honduran trials suggest that exclusive breastfeeding through 6 months of age is associated with delayed resumption of menses and more rapid postpartum weight loss in the mother. Infants who are breastfed exclusively for 6 months experience less morbidity from gastrointestinal tract infection than infants who were mixed breastfed as of 3 or 4 months of age. No deficits have been demonstrated in growth among infants from either developing or developed countries who are exclusively breastfed for 6 months or longer. Moreover, the mothers of such infants have more prolonged lactational amenorrhea and faster postpartum weight loss. Based on the results of this review, the World Health Assembly adopted a resolution to recommend exclusive breastfeeding for 6 months to its member countries. Large randomized trials are recommended in both developed and developing countries to ensure that exclusive breastfeeding for 6 months does not increase the risk of undernutrition (growth faltering), to confirm the health benefits reported thus far, and to investigate other potential effects on health and development, especially over the long term.

Kremers, S. P., J. Brug, et al. (2003). "Parenting style and adolescent fruit consumption." Appetite 41(1): 43-50.
	The importance of the social environment for dietary behaviour has been highlighted in the past decade. A type of environmental influence that has received increasing research attention in recent years is the influence that parents can have on their children's dietary behaviour through food-related parenting practices. Much of the work done so far, however, has reported inconsistent findings and poorly understood mechanisms of influence. The present study aimed to explore the possible environmental influence of general parenting style on adolescent food choice patterns. Data were collected at schools (N = 643; mean age 16.5 years), using self-administered questionnaires on parenting style. fruit intake behaviour and fruit-specific cognitions. Consistent and theoretically predictable differences were found between adolescents who described their parents as authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent or neglectful. Fruit consumption and fruit-specific cognitions were most favourable among adolescents who were being raised with an authoritative parenting style. Children of parents with indulgent parenting styles consumed more fruit than adolescents from authoritarian or neglectful homes. Consequences of these results for the interpretation of earlier studies on the influence of parenting practices are discussed, and a research model is proposed for future studies of parental influences on adolescent dietary behaviours. (C) 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 

Kretchmar, M. D. and D. B. Jacobvitz (2002). "Observing mother-child relationships across generations: Boundary patterns, attachment, and the transmission of caregiving." Family Process 41(3): 351-374.
	Grounded in both attachment and family systems theories, this study is one of the first to examine how relationship patterns observed in mothers' current relationships with their own mothers are recreated in their relationships with their infants. Mostly white, middle-class families (N = 55), including maternal grandmothers, mothers, and infants, were observed when infants were 6, 9, and 18 months old. At 6 months, mothers and grandmothers completed self-report assessments and worked together on discussion tasks. These interactions were coded using the Boundary Assessment Coding System, developed for the present study, which assessed three relational patterns: disengagement, balance, and entanglement. At 9 months, mothers were rated on sensitivity and intrusiveness while playing with and feeding their infants; and, at 18 months, infant-mother attachment was assessed using the Strange Situation. Multiple regression analyses revealed, as predicted, that mothers who remembered being accepted by their mothers as children and who were in highly balanced relationships with their own mothers currently were more sensitive and less intrusive with their 9-month-old infants. Further, discriminant function analyses indicated that memories of acceptance, high levels of balance, and low levels of disengagement differentiated secure from insecure attachment, whereas memories of overprotection and high levels of entanglement distinguished resistant from secure and avoidant attachment. Discussion focuses on the theoretical hypothesis that mothers internalize relationship strategies experienced with their own caregivers and recreate these patterns with their infants

Kretchmar, M. D. and D. B. Jacobvitz (2002). "Observing mother-child relationships across generations: Boundary patterns, attachment, and the transmission of caregiving."  41(3): 351-374.
	Grounded in both attachment and family systems theories, this study is one of the first to examine how relationship patterns observed in mothers' current relationships with their own mothers are recreated in their relationships with their infants. Mostly white, middle-class families (N = 55), including maternal grandmothers, mothers, and infants, were observed when infants were 6, 9, and 18 months old. At 6 months, mothers and grandmothers completed self-report assessments and worked together on discussion tasks. These interactions were coded using the Boundary Assessment Coding System, developed for the present study, which assessed three relational patterns: disengagement, balance, and entanglement. At 9 months, mothers were rated on sensitivity and intrusiveness while playing with and feeding their infants; and, at 18 months, infant-mother attachment was assessed using the Strange Situation. Multiple regression analyses revealed, as predicted, that mothers who remembered being accepted by their mothers as children and who were in highly balanced relationships with their own mothers currently were more sensitive and less intrusive with their 9-month-old infants. Further, discriminant function analyses indicated that memories of acceptance, high levels of balance, and low levels of disengagement differentiated secure from insecure attachment, whereas memories of overprotection and high levels of entanglement distinguished resistant from secure and avoidant attachment. Discussion focuses on the theoretical hypothesis that mothers internalize relationship strategies experienced with their own caregivers and recreate these patterns with their infants.

Krishnakumar, A. and M. M. Black (2003). "Family processes within three-generation households and adolescent mothers' satisfaction with father involvement." Journal of Family Psychology 17(4): 488-498.
	This investigation used a family systems perspective to examine how family dynamics within 3-generation households were associated with mothers' satisfaction with father involvement. The participants were low-income African American adolescent mothers (n = 148) and grandmothers recruited at delivery and followed over 6 months. The overall model explained 68% of the variance in satisfaction with father involvement. Fathers who were involved with caregiving activities had positive relationships with adolescent mothers and grandmothers. Grandmothers served as gatekeepers; when grandmothers reported positive relationships with the 2 young parents, adolescent mothers reported positive relationships with their male partners. Mothers who reported positive partner relationships also reported high parenting efficacy and satisfaction with father involvement. Efforts to increase paternal involvement should focus on role clarification for grandmothers and fathers and on parenting activities for mothers and fathers, regardless of their romantic relationship

Kruger, R. and G. J. Gericke (2003). "A qualitative exploration of rural feeding and weaning practices, knowledge and attitudes on nutrition."  6(2): 217-223.
	Aim: An exploratory qualitative investigation was done to determine the feeding and weaning practices, knowledge and attitudes towards nutrition of mothers/caregivers of children up to 3 years old attending baby clinics in the Moretele district (South Africa). Methodology: Qualitative data collection on six relevant nutrition topics was done using focus group interviews. Trained moderators, using a pre-tested, structured interview schedule, interviewed participants in six age groups. Focus group interviews were taped, transcribed and translated. Content analysis produced systematic data descriptions and ethnography provided descriptive data. Results: Breast-feeding was the choice feed and bottle-feeding was only given when breast-feeding was impossible. Solid food was introduced early (at 2-3 months) and a mixed family diet at 7-9 months. Milk feeds were stopped completely from 18-24 months. Weaning diets were compromised due to poor food choices, preparation practices and limited variety. The participant's nutrition knowledge regarding specific foods, their functions and recommended quantities was poor. The women adhered to their cultural beliefs regarding food choices and preparation practices. Conclusion: The data analysis revealed that inadequate nutrition knowledge and adherence to cultural practices lead to poor-quality feeding practices. Cultural factors and taboos have a powerful influence on feeding practices and eating patterns. Young mothers often find it impossible to ignore their ill-informed elders or peer group. Nutrition knowledge needs to be changed in a first step towards implementing improved feeding practices. Facilitated group discussions could focus on possible solutions for the identified nutrition-related problems.

Kruse, L., C. E. Denk, et al. (2005). "Comparing sociodemographic and hospital influences on breastfeeding initiation." Birth-Issues in Perinatal Care 32(2): 81-85.
	
Kubik, M. Y., L. Lytle, et al. (2005). "Fruits, vegetables, and football: Findings from focus groups with alternative high school students regarding eating and physical activity." Journal of Adolescent Health 36(6): 494-500.
	Purpose: To increase our understanding of factors that may influence the dietary and physical activity practices of adolescents attending an alternative high school (AHS). 
Methods: Seventy students (36 girls, 34 boys) from urban and suburban AHSs in the Minneapolis-St. Paul metropolitan area participated in 7 focus groups to discuss their perceptions and opinions about factors that influence their eating and physical activity behaviors and to offer suggestions regarding school-based strategies to support and to promote healthy physical activity and eating practices among students. Mixed-gender groups were facilitated by a trained moderator by using a set of standardized questions to guide the 45- to 60-minute discussions. Focus groups were audiotaped, transcribed, and analyzed using a 3-step process for qualitative analysis.

Results: Time, cost, availability, and convenience were identified as key factors that influenced students' food choices and the choice to be active physically. Access to healthy foods and physical activity was problematic, especially at school. Students also reported that social support from their friends, family, and teachers, and role-modeling behaviors of adults enhanced their likelihood of eating healthy foods and being active.

Conclusions: Study findings suggest that programs that target social-environmental factors that include norms, role models, social support. and opportunities to practice a health behavior have the potential to affect positively the dietary and physical activity practices of teenagers attending an AHS. Interventions that aim to increase opportunities at school to practice healthy eating and physical activity may be effective, especially in promoting and supporting healthy behavior change among students. (c) 2005 Society for Adolescent Medicine. All rights reserved.

Kuchta, D. and I. ebrary (2002). The three-piece suit and modern masculinity : England, 1550-1850. Berkeley, Calif. ; London, University of California Press.
	
Kuhn, L. (2002). "Beyond informed choice: Infant feeding dilemmas for women in low-resource communities of high HIV prevalence." Social Dynamics-a Journal of the Centre for African Studies University of Cape Town 28(1): 132-154.
	
Kyle, R. (1999). Middle Class Men's Conceptualisations of Food: A Sociological Investigation. London, South Bank University.
	The thesis is an exploratory study about men’s conceptualisations of food and eating. Starting out from the discipline of nutrition, the thesis moves towards a sociological perspective on food and eating. The thesis draws on data generated by holding unstructured audio-tape recorded interviews with a small group of middle class, middleaged men. The study was carried out to begin to address the scarcity of men’s views on household food and eating in the sociological literature.

Three major themes emerged from the interviews. Men talked about food in relation to health, the family, and their contribution to household food work. The main health concern was heart disease, but most men had not changed their diets in accordance with current nutritional recommendations. Using a complex system of explanation, men assessed their own risk of heart disease, and thus whether dietary change is necessary. Talking about food and health brought conceptions of balance and moderation to light, which contrast with the customary use of these terms in nutrition health promotion materials.

Juxtaposing men’s views of food and eating in the household, with the opinions of men’s behaviour reported by women in previous research, revealed similarities and differences between men’s and women’s viewpoints. Men’s views are considered by reference to the age, life stage and social class of the informants, as well as taking into account the date and region of previous studies. Although in most households, shopping and cooking is undertaken by women, men whose wives had full-time jobs were often responsible for these activities. Most men reported that they did some cooking, but how ‘cooking’ is defined by men may have implications for deducting their actual contribution household food work.

Men adhered to an ideal of the family meal, but there was little evidence to support the privileging of men’s food preferences, The thesis discusses how this study about food and eating gives a preliminary insight into the ways in which men view their role, and hence define their masculinity, in the private domain of the household.

Laessle, R. G., H. Uhl, et al. (X2001). "Parental influences on eating behavior in obese and nonobese preadolescents." International Journal of Eating Disorders. 30(4): 447-53.
	OBJECTIVE: To determine parental influences on obesity, the eating behavior of 80 obese and normal weight children (aged 8-12 years) was investigated in the laboratory. METHOD: A controlled repeated measures design was used. The mother was either present or absent while the child was eating in the laboratory. The eating style was measured by recording cumulative eating curves with a universal eating monitor, using yoghurt as a standardized experimental meal. RESULTS: The eating behavior of obese children differed significantly from normal weight children only when the mother was present in the laboratory. Overweight children ate faster with larger bites and showed an acceleration of their eating rate toward the end of the meal. DISCUSSION: Such an eating style can be hypothesized to explain an increased calorie intake in obese children, promoting a positive energy balance in the long term. The data support a learning model of obesity in childhood, which also has implications for family treatment. Copyright 2001 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Lambert, H., E. Gordon, J., et al. (2005). "Introduction: Gift horse or Trojan horse? Social science perspectives on evidence-based health care." Part Special Issue: Gift Horse or Trojan Horse? Social Science Perspectives on Evidence-based Health Care 62(11): 2613-2620.
	
Landon, M. B. and S. G. Gabbe (1996). "Fetal surveillance and timing of delivery in pregnancy complicated by diabetes mellitus."  23(1): 109-&.
	Protocols for antepartum fetal assessment in pregnancies complicated by diabetes mellitus are an important part of a care program that allows most of these pregnancies to reach term, ensuring fetal maturation. Maternal assessment of fetal activity serves as an efficient screening test in most surveillance programs. These programs have used primarily biophysical testing consisting of the nonstress test, cardiac stress test, or biophysical profile. Doppler studies have been investigated as an adjunct for identifying fetal compromise. These studies may prove most valuable in cases of maternal vascular disease. The success of these protocols continues to be predicated on careful regulation of maternal glycemia through aggressive therapy with insulin and diet. Reassuring tests of fetal condition are present in most diabetic women and, therefore, permit fetal maturation to occur prior to delivery.

Lang, T. and Y. Gabirel (2005). A Brief History of Consumer Activism. The Ethical Consumer. R. Harrison, T. Newholm and D. Shaw. London, Sage: 39-54.
	
Laqueur, T. (2001). "A man's place: Masculinity and the middle-class home in Victorian England." JOURNAL OF MODERN HISTORY 73(4): 946-949.
	
Larson, L. "Rebuilding the lives of the homeless."
	Drawing on the community's health care, business, and social service resources, the I.M. Sulzbacher Center for the Homeless in Jacksonville, Fla., goes beyond just meeting the food, shelter, and medical needs of the city's destitute. As one center resident puts it: Homelessness is feeling like you're less of a human being. I really don't feel homeless; I feel like this is my home.

Larson, L. "Rebuilding the lives of the homeless."
	Drawing on the community's health care, business, and social service resources, the I.M. Sulzbacher Center for the Homeless in Jacksonville, Fla., goes beyond just meeting the food, shelter, and medical needs of the city's destitute. As one center resident puts it: Homelessness is feeling like you're less of a human being. I really don't feel homeless; I feel like this is my home.

Larsson, G. and A. Andersson-Ellstrom (2003). "Experiences of pregnancy-related body shape changes and of breast-feeding in women with a history of eating disorders." European Eating Disorders Review 11(2): 116-124.
	
Launer, L. J., M. R. Forman, et al. (1992). "Maternal Recall of Infant-Feeding Events Is Accurate."  46(3): 203-206.
	Study objective-Retrospective infant feeding data are important to the study of child and adult health patterns. The accuracy of maternal recall of past infant feeding events was examined and specifically the infant's age when breast feeding was stopped and formula feeding and solid foods were introduced. Design and setting-The sample consisted of Bedouin Arab women (n=318) living in the Negev in Israel who were a part of a larger cohort participating in a prospective study of infant health and who were delivered of their infants between July 1 and December 15, 1981. Data from interviews conducted 12 and 18 months postpartum were compared to the standard data collected six months postpartum. Main results-As length of recall increased there was a small increase in the mean difference, and its standard deviation, between the standard and recalled age when breast feeding was stopped and formula feeding and solid foods were started. Recall on formula feeding was less accurate than recall on solid foods and breast feeding. In particular, among those 61% reporting formula use at the six month interview, 51% did not recall introducing formula when interviewed at 18 months. The odds ratio (95% CI) of stunting versus normal length for age for formula fed versus breast fed infants based on recall data (OR=2.07; 95%CI 0.82-5.22) differed only slightly from those based on the standard data (OR=2.21; 95%CI 0.77-6.37). The accuracy of a mother's recall varied with her child's nutritional status at the time of the interview, but not with other sociodemographic, infant, or interviewer characteristics. Conclusions-Retrospective infant feeding data based on maternal recall of events up to 18 months in the past can be used with confidence in epidemiological studies. However, data on formula feeding may not be as accurate as data on breast feeding and solid food feeding, and accuracy may decrease as length of recall increases.

Lawrence, A. R. and A. R. S. Schigelone (2002). "Reciprocity beyond dyadic relationships - Aging-related communal coping." Research on Aging 24(6): 684-704.
	Residing in a long-term care community can provide numerous opportunities for collective identification and cooperative action to address the chronic stressors of aging, including issues of health and well-being. Communal coping, a process that entails the identification of a stressor as "our" issue and "our" responsibility, has traditionally been examined in the context of large-scale natural disasters or war or of family systems. This study examines communal coping behavior among I I elderly residents of a continuing-care retirement community. Using grounded theory and semistructured interviews, the authors found that respondents engaged in mutually beneficial and supportive behavior toward their peers through reciprocal assistance between roommates, the "buddy system" among neighbors, and the expression of solidarity in aging through "we" talk. Aging stressors often viewed as "individual" in nature can instead be both viewed and addressed in the context of a collectively shared experience

Lawrence, F. (2004). Not on the Label: What Really Goes into the Food on Your Plate. London, Penguin.
	
Lawrence, M. (2002). "Body, mother, mind - Anorexia, femininity and the intrusive object."  83: 837-850.
	This paper takes as its starting point the preponderance of female to male patients who suffer from anorexia. The author suggests that there may be something speck about certain experiences of femaleness which predispose towards anxieties of intrusion. Two contemporary theories of the aetiology of anorexia are outlined. Both of these suggest that the problem has its origins in intrusion or invasion of different sorts. The author suggests that many women who suffer from anorexia have an intrusive object instated in their minds, which may not necessarily be the result of actual intrusions in external reality. In the final part of the paper, the author examines the intrusiveness of anorexic patients in the transference and suggests that such patients very often harbour profound phantasies of intruding between the parents, with a wish to regain their special place with mother, untroubled by the presence of father. It is further suggested that the psychopathology underlying certain cases of anorexia leads to a failure in symbolisation. This failure in turn complicates the clinical picture, making such patients particularly difficult to think with about their difficulties.

Lawson, K. and M. I. Tulloch "Breastfeeding duration: prenatal intentions and postnatal practices." Journal of Advanced Nursing 22(5): 841-9.
	Those fully breastfeeding 3 months after the birth of the baby had a higher level of education, timed their decision to breastfeed earlier, intended to breastfeed longer and had a more negative attitude to formula feeding. Commitment and confidence scores were not related to breastfeeding duration in first-time mothers. (Original abstract-amended)

Lawson, K. and M. I. Tulloch (1995). "Breast-Feeding Duration - Prenatal Intentions and Postnatal Practices."  22(5): 841-849.
	A study of 78 primiparas examined the role of prenatal intent and postnatal experiences in breastfeeding duration. Those fully breastfeeding 3 months after the birth of the baby had a higher level of education, timed their decision to breastfeed earlier, intended to breastfeed longer and had a more negative attitude to formula feeding. Commitment and confidence scores were not related to breastfeeding duration in first-time mothers. Breastfeeding duration was also related to the timing of the first breastfeed and extent of mother-infant contact in the 72 hours after birth but not to the number of feeding problems.

Lee, A., M. E. Moretti, et al. (2000). "Choice of breastfeeding and physicians' advice: A cohort study of women receiving propylthiouracil."  106(1): 27-30.
	Objective. To examine the gap between the current social/medical practice and the evidence-based recommendation in favor of breastfeeding during maternal propylthiouracil (PTU) therapy. Design. Prospective, observational, cohort study. Subjects. Women requiring PTU during pregnancy, and endocrinologists and family physicians in Ontario, Canada. Interventions. Questionnaire. Main Outcome Measures. Women were interviewed postpartum regarding their choice of infant feeding method and relevant advice received from physicians. Physicians were questioned about their advice to nursing women receiving PTU. Results. Of 78 women, 66 had live births. Thirty-six required PTU postpartum (group 1), and 30 did not (group 2). Thirty-six healthy women served as controls (group 3). Breastfeeding initiation rates for groups 1, 2, and 3 were 44%, 83%, and 83%, respectively. In group 1, 15 women who breastfed received advice from 22 physicians regarding breastfeeding (20 in favor, 1 against, and 1 equivocal). Eleven who formula fed received advice from 17 physicians (4 in favor, 12 against, and 1 equivocal). A logistic regression analysis of group 1 showed that physicians' advice was the only significant predictor of the woman's choice to breastfeed during PTU therapy (relative risk: 5.48; 95% confidence interval: 1.28-23.40). The physician survey showed that 44% of endocrinologists do not recommend breastfeeding during PTU therapy. Conclusions. A substantial proportion of the lactating patients on PTU still receive advice against breastfeeding from their physicians. Physicians' advice and attitudes toward breastfeeding during PTU therapy are a major factor in women's final decision to breastfeed. Physicians' compliance with evidence-based data will facilitate breastfeeding in this group.

Lee, J. I., J. A. Lee, et al. (2004). "Morning sickness reduces dietary diversity, nutrient intakes, and infant outcome of pregnant women."  24(7): 531-540.
	This study was undertaken to determine the effects of morning sickness in pregnant women on dietary diversity, nutrient intakes, maternal weight gain, and infant outcome. A total of 143 pregnant women in their first trimester participated in the study. Morning sickness tended to make the subjects eliminate food groups, especially the meat and dairy groups. Consequently, the subjects who experienced morning sickness consumed less diverse diets with less energy, protein, and all micronutrients examined. Maternal weight gain during the first trimester tended to decrease gradually with increasing severity of morning sickness. Birth weights of infants born to subjects with even mild symptoms of morning sickness were significantly lower than those from the women without morning sickness. Birth weight and chest circumference seemed to be influenced by morning sickness also. In conclusion, morning sickness in pregnant women result in poor dietary diversity and reduced intakes of energy, protein, and micronutrients and, consequently, adversely affect infant outcome as well as maternal weight gain during early pregnancy. (C) 2004 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Lee, Y., D. C. Mitchell, et al. (2001). "Diet quality, nutrient intake, weight status, and feeding environments of girls meeting or exceeding recommendations for total dietary fat of the American Academy of Pediatrics." Pediatrics 107(6): E95.
	OBJECTIVES: To compare the diet quality and weight status of girls consuming diets meeting the recommendation of the American Academy of Pediatrics for dietary fat with those of girls consuming &gt;30% of energy from fat and to examine relationships between girls' dietary fat intake, mothers' nutrient intakes, and mothers' child-feeding practices. DESIGN: Participants were 192 white girls and their mothers, who were divided into 2 groups: &gt;30% of energy from fat (high fat [HF]) or &lt;/=30% of energy from fat (low fat [LF]), based on girls' 3-day dietary recalls. Girls' food group and nutrient intakes, Healthy Eating Index, body mass index, and mothers' nutrient intakes and child-feeding practices were compared. RESULTS: Girls with HF diets consumed fewer fruits, more meat, and more fats and sweets and had lower Healthy Eating Index scores than did the girls in the LF group. Mothers of girls in the HF group had higher fat intakes than did those in the LF group. Girls and mothers in the HF group had lower intakes of fiber and vitamins A, C, B6, folate, and riboflavin. Mothers in the HF group reported using more restriction and pressure to eat in feeding their daughters. Girls in the HF group showed greater increase in body mass index and skinfold thickness from age 5 to 7 years. CONCLUSION: These findings provide additional support for the recommendation of the American Academy of Pediatrics to limit total dietary fat. Findings reveal that mothers' use of controlling feeding practices are not effective in fostering healthier diets among girls and that mothers' own eating may be more influential than their attempts to control the intake of their daughters. dietary fat, dietary quality, nutrient intake, overweight, feeding practices, children.

Lent, J. A. (1985). "Women and Mass Communications: the Asian Literature." Gazette: The International Journal for Mass Communication Studies 35(2): 123-142.
	Considers images and functions of women in the mass media in Asia from the late 19th century through the early 1980's. Women were underrepresented in the print and broadcasting labor market, and despite attempts at serious mass programs and publications by women such as Annie Besant and Hani Motoko, women continued to be portrayed largely as sex objects and homemakers, and traditional fashion-cooking-housekeeping magazines dominated the women's periodical market.

Lerebours, B., P. Czernichow, et al. (1991). "Infant-Feeding Practices During the 1st 4 Months of Life in a French Department."  48(6): 391-395.
	This study reports infant feeding practices during the first 4 months of life. A representative sample of 10% of the births in the Seine-Maritime department formed the subject of a questionnaire cohort study carried on at home by public health institution for infants specialized nurses. Among 1,407 interviewed mothers, 52% had been thinking about their future child feeding before birth, essentially with their circles, especially their husbands. The type of feeding had been chosen before pregnancy in 64.3% of cases. Earlier choices resulted more often in breast-feeding. 46.2% of mothers tried to breastfeed their children, however 17% among them discontinued when back home. Carrying out breast-feeding (median duration 10 weeks) delayed the feeding diversification and was associated with a lower frequency of health difficulties in children.

Levi-Strauss, C. (1986). The raw and the cooked. Harmondsworth, Penguin.
	
Lévi-Strauss, C. (1990). The origins of table manners. Chicago, University of Chicago Press.
	
Lewallen, L. P. (2004). "Healthy behaviors and sources of health information among low-income pregnant women."  21(3): 200-206.
	This article addresses responses from two open-ended questions, describing the healthy behaviors and sources of health information in 150 low-income pregnant women. Data for this exploratory study were collected as part of a larger descriptive correlational study. Qualitative content analysis was used in the analysis. One hundred fifty English-speaking pregnant women aged 18 and over were interviewed at a public prenatal clinic in the Southeastern United States at their first prenatal visit. Health behaviors were placed into seven mutually exclusive categories: food-related behaviors, substance-related behavior, exercise/rest/activity, self-awareness/appearance, learning, focus on baby, and no specific behaviors. Sources of information questions were placed into seven mutually exclusive categories: family, health personnel, reading, hearing, other people, self-intuitive, and no response. Low-income pregnant women are aware of healthy behaviors and report practicing them during their pregnancies. Because family members are a common source of information for health practices, they should be included in health education efforts.

Lewin, S. A., J. Dick, et al. (2005). "Lay health workers in primary and community health care." Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews(1).
	
Lewis, G. (2005). "Welcome to the Margins: Diversity, Tolerance, and Policies of Exclusion."
	This article explores some of the ways in which UK Government policies inscribe tensions between tolerance of cultural difference, on the one hand, & an attempt to instill a regime of normalizing discipline, on the other. It argues that these tensions are expressed in the ambiguity of the figure of 'the immigrant woman', who simultaneously embodies the possibility of assimilation into & destabilization of the nation & the national. This is because this figure has come to occupy a significant place both in the struggles over the meaning of cultural plurality & as the subject around whom the characterization of the nation as tolerant & modern is invested. 51 References. Adapted from the source document.

Li, R. W., K. S. Scanlon, et al. (2005). "The validity and reliability of maternal recall of breastfeeding practice."  63(4): 103-110.
	In large epidemiologic studies, information on breastfeeding practice is often collected from maternal recall through interviews, but there is concern about the accuracy of the data, especially when mothers are asked to recall their practices from many years earlier. This review examines the validity and reliability of maternal recall of breastfeeding history using 11 studies published between 1966 and 2003 in English with a sample of 10 or more. Validity is the degree to which recall compares with a validation standard or reference, and reliability refers to the degree to which the breastfeeding practices obtained by recall are repeatable over time. The existing studies suggest that maternal recall is a valid and reliable estimate of breastfeeding initiation and duration, especially when the duration of breastfeeding is recalled after a short period (<= 3 years). Validity and reliability of maternal recall for the age at introduction of food and fluids other than breast milk are less satisfactory. Further and more extensive studies on maternal recall of breastfeeding history and ways to improve such recall are warranted.

Libbus, K., T. A. Bush, et al. (1997). "Breastfeeding beliefs of low-income primigravidae."  34(2): 144-150.
	The purpose of this descriptive study was to elicit salient beliefs regarding breastfeeding in low-income, primigravidae. Open-ended questions were used in taped interviews with 41 pregnant women who intended to breastfeed. Basic content analysis was used to identify recurrent beliefs. Infant health benefits and improved bonding were frequently mentioned advantages; disadvantages included interference with maternal schedule, inability of others to feed infant, and physical discomfort. Family members, husbands/boyfriends, and health care providers were thought to approve of breastfeeding. These findings may facilitate efforts to increase breastfeeding initiation by examining beliefs fostering or inhibiting breastfeeding in this population. (C) 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd.

Liem, D. G. and J. A. Mennella (2002). "Sweet and sour preferences during childhood: Role of early experiences."  41(4): 388-395.
	We investigated the effects of early experience on sweet and sour preferences in children. Eighty-three children were divided into four groups based on the type of formula fed during infancy and age. By using a forced-choice, sip-and-swallow procedure, we determined the level of sweetness and sourness preferred in juice. Children who were fed protein hydrolysate formulas, which have a distinctive sour and bitter taste and unpleasant odor, preferred higher levels of citric acid in juice when compared to older children who were fed similar formulas. No such difference was observed between the groups for sweet preference. However, the level of sweetness preferred in juice was related to the sugar content of the child's favorite cereal and whether the mother routinely added sugar to their foods. These data illustrate the wide variety of experiential factors that can influence flavor preferences during childhood. (C) 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Liem, D. G. and J. A. Mennella (2003). "Heightened sour preferences during childhood."  28(2): 173-180.
	Basic research has revealed that the chemical sensory world of children is different from that of adults, as evidenced by their heightened preferences for sweet and salty tastes. However, little is known about the ontogeny of sour taste preferences, despite the growing market of extreme sour candies. The present study investigated whether the level of sourness most preferred in a food matrix and the ability to discriminate differences in sour intensity differed between 5- to 9-year-old children and their mothers, by using a rank-by-elimination procedure embedded in the context of a game. Mothers also completed a variety of questionnaires and children were asked several questions to assess whether children's temperament and food preferences and habits related to sour preferences. The results indicated that, although every mother and all but two of the children (92%) were able to rank the gelatins from most to least sour, more than one-third (35%) of the children, but virtually none of the adults, preferred the high levels of sour taste (0.25 M citric acid) in gelatin. Those children who preferred the extreme sour tastes wore significantly less food neophobic (P < 0.05) and tended to experience a greater variety of fruits when compared with the remaining children (P = 0.11). Moreover, the children's preference for sour tastes generalized to other foods, such as candies and lemons, as reported by both children and mothers. These findings are the first experimental evidence to demonstrate that sour taste preferences are heightened during childhood and that such preferences are related to children's food habits and preferences. Further research is needed to unfold the relationship between the level of sour taste preferred and the actual consumption of sour-tasting foods and flavors in children.

Lightdale, J. R. and E. Oken (2002). "Breastfeeding, food choices, restrictive diets and nutritional fads." Current Opinion in Pediatrics 14: 344-349.
	
Linares, E. "Food services for the homeless in Spain: Caritas Programme for the Homeless."
	Homelessness includes a wide range of people, from those living on the street (strictly homeless) to people living temporarily with relatives or friends because they have lost their home. Programmes for the homeless should design strategies aimed at encouraging insertion processes, thus considering the different dimensions involved. Within this framework Caritas delivers an array of assistance services for the homeless facing the stages of insertion. In Spain there are 315 centres offering meals for 20000 people, most of them along with other services such as reception, residential premises or day-care centres. Caritas is responsible for 42% of them. Overall, it is easier to get a lunch than any other meal during the day, followed by dinner, while it is difficult to get a breakfast. Social dining rooms are valuable places for a first contact (first stage of the insertion process) and even to start the second stage (personal recovery).

Linares, E. "Food services for the homeless in Spain: Caritas Programme for the Homeless."
	Homelessness includes a wide range of people, from those living on the street (strictly homeless) to people living temporarily with relatives or friends because they have lost their home. Programmes for the homeless should design strategies aimed at encouraging insertion processes, thus considering the different dimensions involved. Within this framework Caritas delivers an array of assistance services for the homeless facing the stages of insertion. In Spain there are 315 centres offering meals for 20000 people, most of them along with other services such as reception, residential premises or day-care centres. Caritas is responsible for 42% of them. Overall, it is easier to get a lunch than any other meal during the day, followed by dinner, while it is difficult to get a breakfast. Social dining rooms are valuable places for a first contact (first stage of the insertion process) and even to start the second stage (personal recovery).

Lindelof, A. (X2005). "Obese children and their parents' experience and understanding of their child's overweight." Ugeskrift for Laeger. 167(2): 163-5.
	
Lindeman, M. and K. Stark (1999). "Pleasure, pursuit of health or negotiation of identity? Personality correlates of food choice motives among young and middle-aged women." Appetite 33(1): 141-161.
	Abstract: The clustering of four food choice motives (health weighs concern, pleasure and ideological reasons) and the relationship between personality and the food choice motives were analysed among young and middle-aged women in two studies. The personality variables included personal strivings, magical beliefs about food, awareness and internalization of thinness pressures, appearance and weight dissatisfaction, depression, self-esteem and symptoms of eating disorders. Study 1 was done with 171 young and middle-aged women. In Study 2, with data provided by 118 senior high-school girls, one cluster of girls who did not regard any of the food choice motives as important was found, otherwise the food choice clusters were fairly similar in both studies. They were labelled as health fosterers, gourmets, ideological eaters, health dieters and distressed dieters. Only the second dieter group, distressed dieters, showed low psychological well-being and symptoms of disordered eating. The results also indicated that ideological food choice motives (i.e. expression of one's identify via food) were best predicted by vegetarianism, magical beliefs about food and health, and personal strivings for ecological welfare and for understanding self and the world. (C) 1999 Academic Press. 

Lindgren, C., J. M. D. Thompson, et al. (1998). "Sleeping position, breastfeeding, bedsharing and passive smoking in 3-month-old Swedish infants."  87(10): 1028-1032.
	Parents of 1028 infants who attended community-based infant health clinics were interviewed concerning infant sleeping position, feeding habits, bedsharing and passive smoking at 3 months of postnatal age. In addition. they were asked to state which source of information had mainly influenced them in the choice of the sleeping position. Fifteen per cent of the infants were regularly laid to sleep in the prone position, compared with 72% (1991) before official guidelines concerning infant sleeping position were issued. The overall prevalence of exclusive breastfeeding was 70.4%. Prevalence of maternal smoking was 17.9% and 22.8% of the infants were regularly bedsharing with the parents. Those mothers who did not comply with official recommendations regarding infant sleeping position were also less likely to follow other recommendations concerning infant care practices. Prone sleeping infants were more likely to be formula fed and exposed to passive smoking, and hence associated with additional risk factors for sudden infant death syndrome.

Lindsay, A. C., K. M. Sussner, et al. (2006). "The role of parents in preventing childhood obesity." Future of Children 16(1): 169-180.
	
Ling, T. (2000). Unpacking Partnership: The Case of Health Care,. New Managerialism New Welfare. S. G. in J.  Clarke, S. & E. McLaughlin (Eds). London, Sage.
	
Lipmann, B. "Providing housing and care to elderly homeless men and women in Australia."
	People who are unemployed and who lack the resources to buy adequate food, shelter, or basic health care services face an endless struggle to survive. It is frequently a degrading and humiliating experience. The elderly homeless, who are often frail and sick, are particularly disadvantaged in this struggle. Yet resources are often available to welfare providers to care for the aged homeless. All that is needed is a willingness for providers and government agencies to acknowledge the existence of homelessness among the elderly and be prepared to alleviate the problem.

Lipmann, B. "Providing housing and care to elderly homeless men and women in Australia."
	People who are unemployed and who lack the resources to buy adequate food, shelter, or basic health care services face an endless struggle to survive. It is frequently a degrading and humiliating experience. The elderly homeless, who are often frail and sick, are particularly disadvantaged in this struggle. Yet resources are often available to welfare providers to care for the aged homeless. All that is needed is a willingness for providers and government agencies to acknowledge the existence of homelessness among the elderly and be prepared to alleviate the problem.

Lister, R. (1999). "Reforming welfare around the work ethic: new gendered and ethical perspectives on work and care." Policy and Politics 27(2): 233-46.
	
Liu, J. H., K. D. Rosenberg, et al. (2006). "Breastfeeding duration and perinatal cigarette smoking in a population-based cohort." American Journal of Public Health 96(2): 309-314.
	
Livingstone, S. and P. Lunt (1994). Talk on Television: audience participation and public debate. London, Routledge.
	
Lizarraga, J. L., J. C. Maehr, et al. (1992). "Psychosocial and Economic-Factors Associated with Infant-Feeding Intentions of Adolescent Mothers."  13(8): 676-681.
	The infant feeding intentions of 64 primiparous, adolescent females, ages 14-18 years, were studied to assess factors which differentiated those who chose breastfeeding from those who did not. The study population consisted of 43 Hispanic, 9 black, 7 non-Hispanic white, and 5 Filipino or Southeast Asian subjects interviewed after delivery. Among the Hispanics, 31 primarily spoke Spanish, and 12 primarily spoke English. A total of 72% intended to breastfeed, and 22% planned to exclusively formula feed. Those teens who intended to breastfeed were significantly older, more often married, more likely to be Hispanic and Spanish speaking, and less likely to have been in school during the pregnancy. In addition, teens were more likely to choose breastfeeding if they had been breastfed themselves or exposed to other women who breastfed. These data suggest that the younger, non-Hispanic, single teen who is enrolled in school and lacking exposure to breastfeeding is the most in need of breastfeeding-promotion programs.

Lobstein, T. (2002). "Food policies: a threat to health?'" Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 61(579-585).
	
Locklin, M. P. and S. J. Naber (1993). "Does Breast-Feeding Empower Women - Insights from a Select Group of Educated, Low-Income, Minority Women."  20(1): 30-35.
	A grounded theory study examined the breastfeeding experiences of a small group of educated, low-income, minority women. In-depth interviews were used to collect data. The five themes that emerged as primary descriptors of the experience were against all odds, personal motivation, support, attachment, and telling the world. These themes help to identify the factors that enhanced successful breastfeeding among this select sample of women, and demonstrate that the perception of successful breastfeeding can have an empowering effect on women.

Logue AW, L. C., Uzzo RG, McCarty MJ, Smith ME. (1988). "Food Preferences in Families." Appetite 10(3): 169-180.
	Preferences for a wide variety of foods were examined in families: 77 students, plus their siblings, mothers and fathers, for a total of 241 subjects. The food preferences of family members were more similar than would be expected by chance. However, this occurred entirely in the comparisons between spouses and between female family members. The results also indicated sex and age differences in family members' food preferences. For example, females tended to prefer low-calorie foods more when they were older, while males tended to prefer alcoholic beverages more when they were older. Both males and females showed a greater preference for coffee when they were older. Some of the variance in food preferences can be explained by an individual's family members' food preferences, as well as by the individual's sex and age.

Lomas, J. ((1998)). "Social capital and health: implications for public health and epidemiology,." Social Science & Medicine, 47: 1181 - 1188.
	
London, S. (2005). "Home visits help mothers maintain breast-feeding after leaving the hospital." International Family Planning Perspectives 31(4): 202-203.
	
Longbottom, P. J., W. L. Wrieden, et al. (2002). "Is there a relationship between the food intakes of Scottish 5 1/2 to 8 1/2 year olds and those of their mothers?" Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics 15: 271-279.
	
Longhurst, R. (2005). "Fat bodies: developing geographical research agendas." Progress in Human Geography 29(3): 247-259.
	
Lord, D. (2004). "The good father: On men, masculinity, and life in the family." LIBRARY JOURNAL 129(19): 81.
	
Lowes, J. and M. Tiggemann (2003). "Body dissatisfaction, dieting awareness and the impact of parental influence in young children."  8: 135-147.
	Objectives. This study aimed to assess the level of body dissatisfaction and dieting awareness in young children. Method. A sample of 135 children aged between 5 and 8 years old were individually interviewed. Body dissatisfaction was assessed by means of figure preference ratings, and dieting awareness by responses to a brief scenario. Results. The difference between boys' ratings of current and ideal figures was not significant at any age; nor was that of 5-year-old girls. However, 6-, 7- and 8-year-old girls rated their ideal figure as significantly thinner than their current figure. For dieting awareness there was no significant gender effect, although level of dieting awareness increased with age. Multiple regression analyses showed that body dissatisfaction was predicted by gender and perception of mothers' body dissatisfaction, while age was the only significant predictor of dieting awareness. Conclusions. A substantial proportion of young children have internalized societal beliefs concerning the ideal body shape and are well aware of dieting as a means for achieving this ideal. In particular, the desire for thinness emerges in girls at around age 6.

Lowry, M. and D. F. Lillis (1993). "Infant-Feeding Practices."  86(1): 13-14.
	This study was done on a population of 877 mothers over a five month period. Interviews were held on the first day after delivery and on the day of discharge. Mothers were questioned on their infant feeding practice and on the influences which led them to their choice of feed types. Follow up studies were done in subsequent months on randomly selected populations of breast feeders (103) and bottle feeders (170) to determine duration of breast feeding after discharge from hospital; the factors contributing to cessation of breast feeding; the measure of satisfaction with the brand initially chosen and the factors which caused mothers to change from one brand to another. The salient finding is that 36% breast feed initially and that up to 10% of the total are still doing so five months later. The other findings are discussed and their significance stated.

Lu, M. C., L. Lange, et al. (2001). "Provider encouragement of breast-feeding: Evidence from a national survey."  97(2): 290-295.
	Objective: To examine the influence of provider encouragement on breast-feeding among women of different social and ethnic backgrounds in the United States. Methods: A nationally representative sample of 2017 parents with children younger than 3 years was surveyed by telephone. The responses of the 1229 women interviewed were included in the analysis. Respondents were asked to recall whether their physicians or nurses had encouraged or discouraged them from breast-feeding. The effects of provider encouragement on breast-feeding initiation and duration were evaluated by multivariate logistic regression. The sample was then stratified to allow subset analyses by race and ethnicity, education, income class, age group, and marital status. Results: More than one-third (34.4%) of respondents did not initiate breast-feeding. Three-fourths (73.2%) of women reported having been encouraged by their physicians or nurses to breast-feed; 74.6% of women who were encouraged initiated breast-feeding, compared with only 43.2% of those who were not encouraged (P < 0.001). Women who were encouraged to breast-feed were more than four times (relative risk 4.39; 95% confidence interval 2.96, 6.49) as likely to initiate breast-feeding as women who did not receive encouragement. The influence of provider encouragement was significant across all strata of the sample. In populations traditionally less likely to breast-feed, provider encouragement significantly increased breast-feeding initiation, by more than threefold among low-income, young, and less-educated women; by nearly fivefold among black women; and by nearly Ii-fold among single women. Conclusion: Provider encouragement significantly increases breast-feeding initiation among American women of all social and ethnic backgrounds. (Obstet Gynecol 2001;97: 290-5. (C) 2001 by The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists.).

Ludvigsen, A. and N. Sharma (2004). Burger boy and sporty girl: children and young people's attitudes towards food in schools, Barnardos: 36-38.
	
Lumeng, J. C., K. Gannon, et al. (2003). "Association between clinically meaningful behavior problems and overweight in children."  112(5): 1138-1145.
	Objective. To determine whether there is a relationship between clinically meaningful behavior problems and concurrent and future overweight in 8- to 11-year-old children. Methods. 1998 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth interview data for 8- to 11-year-old children and their mothers were analyzed. A Behavior Problems Index score >90th percentile was considered clinically meaningful. Child overweight was defined as a body mass index (BMI) greater than or equal to95th percentile for age and sex. Multiple logistic regression was used to control for potential confounders (selected a priori): child's sex, race, use of behavior-modifying medication, history of academic retention, and hours of television per day; maternal obesity, smoking status, marital status, education, and depressive symptoms; family poverty status; and Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment-Short Form (HOME-SF) cognitive stimulation score. In an attempt to elucidate temporal sequence, a second analysis was conducted with a subsample of normal-weight children who became overweight between 1996 and 1998 while controlling for BMI z score in 1996. Results. The sample included 755 mother-child pairs. Of the potential confounding variables, race, maternal obesity, academic grade retention, maternal education, poverty status, and HOME-SF cognitive stimulation score acted as joint confounders, altering the relationship between behavior problems and overweight in the multiple logistic regression model. With these covariates in the final model, behavior problems were independently associated with concurrent child overweight (adjusted odds ratio: 2.95; 95% confidence interval: 1.34-6.49). The relationship was strengthened in the subsample of previously normal-weight children, with race, maternal obesity, HOME-SF cognitive stimulation score, and 1996 BMI z score acting as confounders (adjusted odds ratio: 5.23; 95% confidence interval: 1.37-19.9). Conclusions. Clinically meaningful behavior problems in 8- to 11-year-old children were independently associated with an increased risk of concurrent overweight and becoming overweight in previously normal-weight children.

Lupton, D. (1996). Food, the Body and the Self. London, Sage.
	
Lupton, D. (1996). Food, the Family and Childhood. Food, the body and the self. London, Sage: 37-68.
	
Lupton, D. (1996). Theoretical Perspectives on Food and Eating. Food, the body and the self.
	
Lupton, D. (1999). Risk. London, Routledge.
	
Lupton, D. (2001). Bodies: exploring fluid boundaries. London, Routledge.
	Chapter Headings
1) Bodily openings
2) 'Corporeogeographies'
3) Pregnant bodies in public places
4) Men's bodies and bathrooms
5) Managing managerial bodies
6) Some thoughts of close(t) spaces

Lynch, J. W., Smith G.D., Kaplan, G.A., House J.S. ( (2000)). "Income inequality and mortality: importance to health of individual income, psychosocial environment, or material conditions,." British Medical Journal, 320: 1200 -1204.
	
Lyotard, J. F. ((1984)). The Postmodern Condition. A Report on Knowledge. Manchester:, Manchester University Press.
	
Mac an Ghaill, M. (1996). Understanding masculinities : social relations and cultural arenas. Buckingham, Eng. ; Philadelphia, Open University Press.
	
MacDonald, A. (2003). "Is breast best? Is early solid feeding harmful?" Journal of the Royal Society for the Promotion of Health 123(3): 169-174.
	
Macgowan, R. J., C. A. Macgowan, et al. (1991). "Breast-Feeding among Women Attending Women, Infants, and Children Clinics in Georgia, 1987."  87(3): 361-366.
	Breast-feeding is an important determinant of the health and nutritional status of children, particularly in lower socioeconomic populations. A major goal of the Georgia Special Supplemental Food Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) is to increase the practice of breast-feeding among the women it serves. Breast-feeding practices were determined among a random sample of 404 women from a cohort of 2010 who attended WIC prenatal clinics in Georgia in 1986 and were expected to deliver in February 1987. Respondents were interviewed 6 months postpartum. Of these women, 24% initially breast-fed, but only 6% continued for 6 months or longer. The initiation of breast-feeding was associated with greater maternal education and with being married. The adjusted odds of breast-feeding for mothers who were married or living as married were 3.0 (95% confidence interval, 1.7 to 5.3) times greater than for mothers who were not married or living as married. Mothers with more than 12 years, 12 years, or 10 to 11 years of education were 5.2 (1.8 to 15.3), 2.7 (1.0 to 6.9), and 2.5 (0.9 to 6.9) times more likely, respectively, to breast-feed than mothers with 9 or fewer years of education. After adjustment was made for marital status and education, the remaining variables (ethnicity, parity, age, and employment status) did not influence the initiation of breast-feeding in this low-income population. The need for vigorous promotion of breast-feeding by the Georgia WIC program is emphasized by the low rate of initiation and short duration of breast-feeding in this low-income population.

MacInnes, J. (1998). The end of masculinity : the confusion of sexual genesis and sexual difference in modern society. Buckingham [England] ; Philadelphia, Open University Press.
	
Mackian, S. (2002). "Complex cultures: rereading the story about health and social capital'." Critical Social Policy 22(2): 203-225.
	
Mackie, E. Market a La Mode: Fashion, Commodity and Gender in the "Tatler" and the "Spectator" 
	
MacLachlan, C. M. (1974). "Modernization of Female Status in Mexico: the Image of Women's Magazines." Revista Interamericana 4(2): 246-257.
	The mass media, especially women's magazines, offer insights into the status of women in Mexico. The role of the Mexican female has changed in recent times, but machismo (the cult of male dominance) still plays a decisive part in the conduct of women. Recent changes have come from the force of foreign examples rather than domestic pressure.

Macmurray, J. ((1995)). The Form of the Personal. London, Faber.
	
Maehr, J. C., J. L. Lizarraga, et al. (1993). "A Comparative-Study of Adolescent and Adult Mothers Who Intend to Breast-Feed."  14(6): 453-457.
	The purpose of this study was to compare reasons for choosing to breastfeed, timing of the infant feeding decision, and intended duration of breastfeeding between adolescent and adult mothers. The study population consisted of primiparous teens and adults who were matched by ethnicity, and interviewed within 48 hours postpartum at the University of California, San Diego Medical Center from August to December, 1989. Of the 48 women in each age group, there were 40 Hispanics, 5 non-Hispanic whites, 2 blacks, and 1 Southeast Asian. Results showed that the teens differed from their adult counterparts in that they cited naturalness or convenience less often as a reason for breastfeeding. The adolescent mothers were also less likely than the adults to make the decision to breastfeed before the pregnancy, than during pregnancy or after birth. There was no difference in intended duration of breastfeeding between these two groups: the majority of women planned to breastfeed for less than 26 weeks. Early introduction of infant feeding education may serve to increase the adolescent's knowledge base from which to make the decision to breastfeed. Even though the adolescents intended to breastfeed for as long as the adults, they may benefit from increased exposure to prenatal care and childbirth classes as well as from a supportive school or work environment in order to achieve success in breastfeeding.

Maffeis, C. (2000). "Aetiology of overweight and obesity in children and adolescents." European Journal of Pediatrics 159(Suppl 1): S35-S44.
	
Maher, J. (2005). "A Mother by Trade: Australian Women Reflecting Mothering as Activity, Not Identity."
	The changing roles & perceptions of women & mothers at the turn of the 21st century in Australia were reflected in various policy initiatives & discussions in the popular media. Presented here are empirical data collected in Australia, 2000-2003, in two separate studies of (1) the domestic labor patterns of cohabiting among 22 heterosexual couples, ages 25-35, 13 of whom had children; & (2) the fertility decisions of 100 women in Victoria (58 of whom had children) occupying various places in the paid workforce. Results are drawn on to examine the "contested terrain of mothering" & its implications for contemporary women & their sense of identity. It is shown that the mothers in these samples defined their mothering as "doing" rather than "being" & that motherhood was less connected to their perceptions of identity as women than one of the many types of "work" in which women engage. K. Hyatt Stewart.

Maher, V. (1995). The Anthropology of Breast-Feeding: natural law or social construct. Oxford, Berg.
	
Mahon-Daly, P. and G. J. Andrews (2002). "Liminality and breastfeeding: women negotiating space and two bodies." Health & Place 8(2): 61-76.
	
Makelakel, J. (1996). "A Proper Meal: Exploring the Views of Women with Families." Sosiologia 33(1): 12-22.
	The role & importance of eating space were examined in an interview survey of 36 full-time employed, family women in Helsinki, Finland. Based on the concept of eating space as developed by previous research on meals & eating, the survey extricates the complexities of eating & accounts for contradistinctions in earlier work. The meal is defined as a manifestation of food culture represented by choice of food & sociability. Most respondents wished that more meals could be shared with the whole family - an uncommon occurrence due to the increasingly busy lives of all family members. Furthermore, with the number & range of modern alternatives, family meals have become less necessary. Although these changes are considerable, it is concluded that the role of women as housewives & cooks has not yet been challenged. 58 References. Adapted from the source document.

Makins, P. (1976). The Evelyn Home story. [London], Fontana.
	
Mannion, G. and J. I’Anson (2004). "Beyond the Dinseyesque. Children’s participation, spatiality and adult–child relations." Childhood 11(3): 303–318.
	
Mansfield, A. (2004). "A whirlwind tour of masculinity ideologies through the centuries." CULTURE & PSYCHOLOGY 10(3): 353-363.
	
Marineau, F. A., C (1979). "Values Underlying Food Shopping Practices of Low-Income Consumers." Journal of the Canadian Dietetic Association 40(4): 324-325.
	
Markel, H. (2003). "Don't kill your baby: Public health and the decline of breast feeding in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries." Bulletin of the History of Medicine 77(1): 215-217.
	
Marlier, L. and B. Schaal (2005). "Human newborns prefer human milk: Conspecific milk odor is attractive without postnatal exposure." Child Development 76(1): 155-168.
	
Marmot, M. a. W., R.G. ( (2001)). "Psychosocial and material pathways in the relation between income and health. A response to Lynch et. al.,." British Medical Journal 322: 1233-1236.
	
Marquis, M. and B. Shatenstein (2005). "Food choice motives and the importance of family meals among immigrant mothers."  66(2): 77-82.
	To determine the health and social benefits of the family mealtime, we examined the contribution of immigrant mothers' food motives to the importance placed on family meals, and cultural differences in mothers' food motives and the importance ascribed to family meals. Data were taken from a study on food choice factors among ten- to 12-year-old children from three cultural communities in Montreal. A 24-item, self-administered questionnaire was used to explore food choice motives. Each mother was also asked how important it was for her family to take the time to eat together, and if the child enjoyed sharing meals with his or her family. In all, 209 of the 653 questionnaires distributed were valid; 68 were from Haitian, 75 from Portuguese, and 66 from Vietnamese mothers. Five factors emerging from factor analyses explained 61.67% of the variance. Analysis of variance indicated significant differences between mothers' countries of origin for the importance placed on health, Pleasure, familiarity, and ingredient properties (p < 0.005). Among Haitian and Portuguese mothers, health motivations emerged as the only significant predictor of the importance given to family meals, whereas for Vietnamese mothers, both health and eating familiar foods were predictors (p < 0.05).

Marriott, L. D. and K. D. Foote (2003). "Advances in the nutrition of preterm infants." Journal of the Royal Society for the Promotion of Health 123(3): 159-164.
	
Marshall, D. (1995). Food choice and the consumer. London, Blackie Academic & Professional.
	
Marshall, D. W. (1995). "The Decline of the Family Meal."  24(3): 270-270.
	
Marsiglio, W., P. Amato, et al. (2000). "Scholarship on fatherhood in the 1990s and beyond." Journal of Marriage and the Family 62(4): 1173-1191.
	
Marsiglio, W. and A. Men's Studies (1995). Fatherhood : contemporary theory, research, and social policy. Thousand Oaks, Calif. ; London, Sage Publications.
	
Marsiglio, W. and F. L. Mott "Does wanting to become pregnant with a first child affect subsequent maternal behaviors and infant birth weight?" Journal of Marriage and the Family 50: 1023-6.
	Found that while wantedness was related to most of the maternal behaviors in a bivariate context, age at childbearing and race tended to be responsible for these relationships. In a multivariate context, women who wanted their pregnancy were more likely to initiate prenatal care early in their pregnancy and more likely to gain an excessive amount of weight. (Abstract amended)

Mason, J. ((1998)). Qualitative researching. London, Sage Publications.
	
Masschelein, J. a. M., S. (2002). "An Adequate Education in a Globalised World? A Note on Immunisation: Against Being-Together." Journal of Philosophy of Education 36(4): 589-608.
	
Matheny, A. C. and T. S. Zimmerman (2001). "The application of family systems theory to organizational consultation: A content analysis." American Journal of Family Therapy 29(5): 421-433.
	A content analysis was performed on 43 articles published between 1970 and 1998 discerned as relating family systems theory (FST) frameworks and constructs to organizational consultation. Frameworks and constructs were coded and then investigated in relation to four independent variables., type of organization, decade of article publication, gender, and educational training of author. Results indicate that the use of FST frameworks and constructs vary depending upon the characteristics of the organization, time period, and consultant. Results highlight specific FST frameworks and constructs most common in organizational consultation

May, L., R. A. Strikwerda, et al. (1996). Rethinking masculinity : philosophical explorations in light of feminism. Lanham, Md. ; London, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
	
Mayall, B. (1998). "Towards a sociology of child health." Sociology of Health and Illness 20(3): 269-288.
	
Mayall, B. (2001). Children's Health at School. Children in Society - Contemporary Theory, Policy and Practice. P. Foley, J. Roche and S. Tucker. Basingstoke, Palgrave: 195-201.
	
Maynard, L. M., D. A. Galuska, et al. (2003). "Maternal perceptions of weight status of children."  111(5): 1226-1231.
	Objective. We quantified maternal misclassification of child weight status and examined determinants associated with maternal perceptions of child weight status. Methods. Data from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey ( 1988 - 1994) were used. The sample included 5500 children ( aged 2 - 11 years) with maternal interview data. Maternal perceptions of children's weight status were compared with measured weights and statures from which body mass index (BMI; weight/stature(2); kg/m(2)) percentiles and z scores were determined. Frequency analyses determined the percentages of mothers considering their child to be "overweight," " underweight," or " about the right weight." Multivariable logistic regression analyses determined predictors of maternal misclassification of overweight children (greater than or equal to 95th BMI-for-age percentile) and those at risk for overweight (greater than or equal to 85th to < 95th BMI-for-age percentile). Results. Nearly one third (32.1%) of mothers reported their overweight child as " about the right weight." Younger children and those with lower BMI-for-age z scores had significantly greater odds of maternal underclassification of child overweight status. For children at risk for overweight, 14.0% of mothers reported sons to be " overweight," whereas 29.0% considered daughters to be "overweight." Odds of maternal misclassification of at-risk children as " overweight" were significantly greater for daughters, older children, children with higher BMI-for-age z scores, and children whose mothers had a lower BMI. Race/ethnicity was not a significant predictor in either model. Conclusions. Nearly one third of mothers misclassify overweight children as being lower than their measured weight status. Mothers are more likely to identify daughters who are at risk of overweight as being " overweight" than they are sons.

McCaffree, J. (2003). "Childhood eating patterns: the roles parents play." Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 103(12): 1587.
	
McCann, T. V. and E. Clark. (2005). "Adopting Care Provider-Facilitator Roles: Community Mental Health Nurses and Young Adults with an Early Episode of Schizophrenia."
	The study focused on how community mental health nurses promoted wellness when caring for young adults with schizophrenia. Grounded theory methodology informed data collection & analysis. Interviews & observations were held with nurses, mental health clients & significant others. The findings showed that the basic social psychological problem was conceptualized as uncertainty of direction, which reflected nurses' uncertainty when contemplating how to assimilate the promotion of wellness into their discourse of care. Nurses dealt with this problem through a basic social psychological process conceptualized as adopting care provider-facilitator roles. There were two inter-related domains or foci of care, which related to the way nurses promoted wellness, & within each domain there were one or more phases. Contextual determinants moderated the way nurses adopted care provider-facilitator roles. The findings have implications for clinical practice, nursing administration, nursing education, & nursing research, & these are discussed. 1 Figure, 56 References. Adapted from the source document.

McCarthy, B. and J. Hagan. "Surviving on the Street: The Experiences of Homeless Youth."
	Questionnaire data are drawn on to describe the living conditions of 390 adolescents who had left home & were living on the streets in Toronto, Ontario, in 1987. The majority of respondents (Rs) had spent a considerable amount of time without adequate shelter, food, or income; many were involved in illegal activities & had been incarcerated or suicidal. Multiple regression analyses revealed that the most consistent predictors of hunger, criminal activity, & incarceration were conditions of street life itself: the lack of secure shelter & the length of time on the street. Overall, the living conditions of these Rs closely parallel those of homeless adults, suggesting that it may be inappropriate to label the former runaways & to consistently separate adults & adolescents into distinct homeless populations. 4 Tables, 44 References. Adapted from the source document.

McConnell-Ginet, S. (2004). "Men talk: Stories in the making of masculinity." LANGUAGE 80(2): 318-320.
	
McCormack, K. (2005). "Stratified Reproduction and Poor Women's Resistance."
	The welfare mother is a powerful symbol of the supposed irresponsible, sexually promiscuous, and immoral behavior of the poor. Resting on dominant ideologies of race, class, and gender, the welfare mother suggests not a poor mother but a bad mother. Based on interviews with 34 mothers receiving public assistance, this article explores how women receiving assistance claim for themselves an identity as good mothers by defining the appropriate responsibilities of mothers to prioritize, protect, discipline, provide for, and spend time with their children. The material realities of poverty combined with work requirements now attached to public assistance exacerbate contradictions between these roles and create difficulties for these mothers. This article explores these contradictions and examines the possibilities for and limits of their use as resistance strategies. 40 References. [Reprinted by permission of Sage Publications Inc., copyright 2005 Sociologists for Women in Society.].

McCracken, E. (1992). Decoding Women's Magazines : From "Mademoiselle" to "Ms", Macmillan P.
	
McCulloch, A. ((2001)). "Social environments and health: cross-sectional national survey." British Medical Journal, 323: 208-209. 323: 208-209.
	
McCullough, F. S. W., S. Yoo, et al. (2004). "Food choice, nutrition education and parental influence on British and Korean primary school children." International Journal of Consumer Studies 28(3): 235-244.
	
McDermott, B. M. and T. Jaffa (2005). "Eating disorders in children and adolescents: an update."  18(4): 407-410.
	Purpose of review Children and adolescents with eating disorders frequently present to child mental health and paediatric services and have significant morbidity, psychosocial impairment and mortality. Efforts to treat these individuals have been hampered by a poor evidence base for effective interventions. This article reviews research published during 2004 with a primary focus on this challenging clinical area. Recent findings Research published during 2004 has replicated past epidemiological findings and expanded our understanding of the relationship of family meal structure and disordered eating. Research has provided assistance in the well known clinical conundrums of excessive exercising in anorexia nervosa and predicting when return of menses will occur. There has also been clarification of adolescent bingeing. Potential advances include a new, noninvasive method of measuring body composition and investigations in adolescents on leptin, neuro and gastrointestinal peptides. Importantly, further evidence of the effectiveness of family therapy for anorexia nervosa and short-term benefits from intervention programs have been published. Summary The research base that will influence clinical practice in child and adolescent eating disorders is increasing. More research is required in all areas of intervention.

McDermott, E. and H. Graham. (2005). "Resilient Young Mothering: Social Inequalities, Late Modernity and the 'Problem' of 'Teenage' Motherhood."
	This paper draws on a systematic review of qualitative research to explore the resilient mothering practices that young, British, working-class mothers employ to care for their children. The synthesis of studies of UK mothers under the age of 20 demonstrates how young working-class women must mother in impoverished circumstances, at the same time as being discursively positioned outside the boundaries of 'normal' motherhood. Consequently, they utilize the only two resources to which they may have access: their families & their own personal capacities. Engaging with debates regarding the extent of the transformations of the social in late modernity, the paper discusses the most prominent of the young mothers' practices: investment in the 'good' mother identity, maintaining kin relations, & prioritization of the mother/child dyad. The paper argues that, while the young mothers' practices display reflexivity & individualism, they are also deeply embedded in, & structured by, social inequalities. 4 Tables, 70 References. Adapted from the source document.

McDonald, P. K., L. M. Bradley, et al. (2005). "Good Mothers, Bad Mothers: Exploring the Relationship between Attitudes towards Nonmaternal Childcare and Mother's Labour Force Participation."
	Normative beliefs of motherhood include a number of culturally prescribed constructs that account for how mothers should think, feel, & behave, which impact on maternal labour force participation (LFP). This study investigates a central element of these normative beliefs, that is, attitudes towards nonmaternal childcare & maternal LFP, using survey (N = 112) & interview (N = 24) data derived from a sample of mothers who were employees & ex-employees of an Australian University. Results show that while at-home women held negative views of all nonmaternal childcare, women working part-time believed nonmaternal care is acceptable if for a limited period of time & where the child is likely to derive developmental benefits. Women working full-time were more positive about nonmaternal care, although a substantial degree of guilt & ambivalence was expressed. The results inform the current understanding of normative beliefs of motherhood in Western societies & may contribute to the development of targeted policies that support families in their employment & care-giving responsibilities. 61 References. Adapted from the source document.

McDonald, R. ((2004)). "Individual identity and organisational control: Empowerment and Modernisation in a Primary Care Trust, ." Sociology of Health and Illness, 26(7): 925-950.
	
McInnes, R. J., J. G. Love, et al. (2001). "Independent predictors of breastfeeding intention in a disadvantaged population of pregnant women."  1.
	Background: Breastfeeding rates in Scotland are very low, particularly in the more disadvantaged areas. Despite a number of interventions to promote breastfeeding very few women actually intend to breastfeed their baby. The aim of this study was to identify personal and social factors independently associated with intention to breastfeed. Methods: Nine hundred and ninety seven women from two socio-economically disadvantaged housing estates located on the outskirts of Glasgow participated in a study that aimed to increase the prevalence of breastfeeding. Self-administered questionnaires completed by each participant collected information in early pregnancy, prior to exposure to the study intervention, on feeding intention, previous feeding experience and socio-demographic data. Results: Five factors were independently predictive of breastfeeding intention. These were previous breastfeeding experience, living with a partner, smoking, parity and maternal age. After adjusting for these five factors, neither deprivation nor receipt of milk tokens provided useful additional predictive information. Conclusion: In this population of socially disadvantaged pregnant women we identified five variables that were independently predictive of breastfeeding intention. These variables could be useful in identifying women at greatest risk of choosing not to breastfeed. Appropriate promotional efforts could then be designed to give due consideration to individual circumstances.

McInnes, R. J. and D. H. Stone (2001). "The process of implementing a community-based peer breast-feeding support programme: the Glasgow experience."  17(1): 65-73.
	Aim: to document the process of implementing and maintaining a community-based peer- support programme. Design and setting: a community-based study located in a socio-economically disadvantaged housing estate on the outskirts of Glasgow. Participants: pregnant women residing in a target postcode area, Intervention: a programme of peer counselling and support for breast feeding, comprising antenatal and postnatal home visits over a period of three years. Implications for practice: peer support may provide an acceptable and appropriate role model for breast-feeding mothers. However, further research is required on other influential factors such as the social network and the impact of this programme on the peer supporter Conclusions: despite a low prevalence of breast feeding, initiating and maintaining peer breast-feeding support was possible. Peer support appeared to be acceptable to mothers and health professionals, Study mothers spoke enthusiastically of the intervention and mentioned increased confidence and self-esteem, (C) 2000 Harcourt Publishers Ltd.

McIntosh, W. A. and M. Zey (1989). "Women as gatekeepers of food consumption. A sociological critique." Food and Foodways . 3(4): 317.
	
McIntyre, E., D. Pisaniello, et al. (2002). "Balancing breastfeeding and paid employment: a project targeting employers, women and workplaces."  17(3): 215-222.
	Since breastfeeding is acknowledged as the best nutrition for young babies, it needs to be protected, supported and promoted, This includes enabling mothers to continue breastfeeding even when they return to work. This paper describes a project that promotes balancing breastfeeding and paid work through the development, distribution, promotion and evaluation of suitable materials to workplaces, employers and women in Australia. Information provided in a workplace kit was based on previous successful strategies from published works in refereed journals and in consultation with employers, employees and other key people, Information for employees was further summarized and translated into Arabic, Chinese, Turkish, Spanish and Vietnamese. Over 50 000 information kits were distributed Australia-wide using a database that comprised contact details of medium to large workplaces plus employee and employer organizations, with preference given to workplaces that employed women of childbearing age and women from diverse cultural backgrounds, The translated material was also distributed to migrant resource centres and working women's centres around Australia. Promotion of the project was extensive, resulting in 20 newspaper articles, 17 radio interviews or news items, and articles in 18 newsletters and professional journals and three magazines. The project was also promoted at three conferences and one seminar Evaluation (directed at employers) focused primarily on the distribution and content of the information kit, since the evaluation was conducted soon after distribution. The evaluation survey was sent to 1571 valid contacts (808 e-mail addresses, 1360 fax numbers). The response rate was 12.8% (n=202). Seventy per cent of responding businesses rated the information kit as excellent. Over half anticipated the kit would be useful in their organization, while over two-thirds agreed that the kit provided sufficient information and suitable solutions to support balancing breastfeeding and work in their organization. While this project has achieved its objectives, further work is required to assist organizations to develop and implement policies and procedures for balancing breastfeeding and work, so that breastfeeding mothers who are returning to work can continue to breastfeed as long as they and their baby require it.

McIntyre, L., N. T. Glanville, et al. (2003). "Do low-income lone mothers compromise their nutrition to feed their children?"  168(6): 686-691.
	Background: Women who live in disadvantaged circumstances in Canada exhibit dietary intakes below recommended levels, but their children often do not. One reason for this difference may be that mothers modify their own food intake to spare their children nutritional deprivation. The objective of our study was to document whether or not low-income lone mothers compromise their own diets to feed their children. Methods: We studied 141 low-income lone mothers with at least 2 children under the age of 14 years who lived in Atlantic Canada. Women were identified through community organizations using a variety of recruitment strategies. The women were asked weekly for 1 month to recall their food intake over the previous 24 hours; they also reported their children's (n = 333) food intake. Mothers also completed a questionnaire about "food insecurity," that is, a lack of access to adequate, nutritious food through socially acceptable means, during each interview. Results: Household food insecurity was reported by 78% of mothers during the study month. Mothers' dietary intakes and the adequacy of intake were consistently poorer than their children's intake overall and over the course of a month. The difference in adequacy of intake between mothers and children widened from Time 1, when the family had the most money to purchase food, to Time 4, when the family had the least money. The children experienced some improvement in nutritional intake at Time 3, which was possibly related to food purchases for them associated with receipt of the Child Tax Benefit Credit or the Goods and Services Tax Credit. Interpretation: Our study demonstrates that low-income lone mothers compromise their own nutritional intake in order to preserve the adequacy of their children's diets.

McKinley, N. M. (1999). "Women and objectified body consciousness: Mothers' and daughters' body experience in cultural developmental, and familial context."  35(3): 760-769.
	Hypotheses about age-related differences in objectified body consciousness (OBC; McKinley & Hyde, 1996) based on the cultural, developmental, and familial contexts of women's body experience were tested on 151 undergraduate women and their middle-aged mothers. Mothers had lower levels of surveillance (watching the body as an outside observer) and body shame (feeling one is a bad person when appearance does not meet cultural standards) than daughters. No differences were found in appearance control beliefs, body esteem, or restricted eating, even though mothers weighed more and were less satisfied with their weight than daughters. OBC was related to measures of psychological well-being in both age groups; body esteem was more strongly related to some measures of daughters' psychological well-being than mothers'. Relationships of partner and family approval and OBC and body esteem were also examined.

McKinley, N. M. and J. S. Hyde (2004). "Personal attitudes or structural factors? A contextual analysis of breastfeeding duration."  28(4): 388-399.
	A personal attitudes model (i.e., infant feeding choices are based on personal attitudes primarily) and a structural factors model (i.e., feeding choices are shaped by the structural contexts of women's lives, as much as personal attitudes) of women's breastfeeding behavior were tested by surveying a longitudinal sample of 548 mostly European American women recruited for the Wisconsin Maternity Leave and Health Project. Personal attitudes (enjoyment of breastfeeding, gender-role attitudes, and work and family salience) accounted for half as much variance in breastfeeding duration for women who were employed outside the home compared to those who were not. For women employed outside the home, both structural variables (length of maternity leave and workplace flexibility) and personal attitudes predicted duration. These results have implications for how we construct the issue of women's breastfeeding decisions.

Mechling, J. (2005). "Boy Scouts and the Manly Art of Cooking." Food and Foodways 13: 67-89.
	
Mellin, A. E., D. Neumark-Sztainer, et al. (2004). "Unhealthy weight management behavior among adolescent girls with type 1 diabetes mellitus: The role of familial eating patterns and weight-related concerns."  35(4): 278-289.
	Purpose: To explore familial eating patterns and weight-related concerns among families of adolescent girls with type 1 diabetes mellitus (DM) and to examine associations with disordered eating behaviors among the girls. Methods: Interviews were conducted with 30 adolescent girls (ages 13-20 years), who had DM for at least 1 year, and separately with their parents. Eighty-four percent of the girls were Caucasian, 13% were African-American, and 3% were Hispanic. The sample included 15 girls who reported (on a questionnaire) engaging in disordered eating behaviors (DE) and a matched comparison group of girls who reported no disordered eating (Non-DE). The semi-structured interview questions focused on adolescent and parent perceptions of the impact of DM on family roles, relationships, and routines, as well as who does what in managing the DM. A content analysis of the interviews identified themes regarding family meal patterns and weight-related issues. Results: Although variation was found, more than one-half (57%) of the families were classified as having a high level of meal structure (e.g., frequent family meals). Families with DE girls were more likely to be classified as having a low level of meal structure (e.g., infrequent family meals) than families with Non-DE girls. Weight concerns (e.g., at least one member having a high desire to lose weight). The prevalence of families with a parent engaging in behaviors to lose weight and/or making negative comments about eating or weight was higher in families of DE girls than Non-DE girls. The combination of low family meal structure and high familial weight concerns was much more prevalent in families with DE girls (58%) than in families of non-DE girls (7%). Conclusions: Interactions around food and weight appear common in many families of adolescent girls with DM. Whereas frequent family meals may help to defend against disordered eating in youth with DM, family weight concerns and behaviors appear to be risk factors for disordered eating. (C) Society for Adolescent Medicine, 2004.

Mennell, S. (1987). "On the Civilising of Appetite." Theory, Culture and Society 4(3-4): 373-403.
	
Mennell, S., A. Murcott, et al. (1992). The sociology of food : eating, diet and culture. London ; Newbury Park, Calif., Sage.
	
Mennell, S., A. Murcott, et al. (1992). The Sociology of Food. London, Sage.
	
Mennell, S. J. (1996). All manners of food : eating and taste in England and France from the Middle Ages to the present. Urbana, University of Illinois Press.
	
Mennell, S. M., Anne; Otterloo, Anneke H. van (1992). The sociology of food: eating, diet and culture. London, Sage.
	
Mennella, J. A. and G. K. Beauchamp (1997). "Mothers' milk enhances the acceptance of cereal during weaning."  41(2): 188-192.
	Although baby food manufacturers and child care manuals often advise parents to prepare their infant's cereal with water or either mother's milk or formula, depending on the feeding regimen of the infant, little is known about the infant's acceptance of differently flavored cereals. The present study demonstrates that breast-fed infants, who had been fed cereal for approximately 2 wk but had experienced cereal prepared only with water, consumed more of the cereal-mother's milk mixture compared with cereal-water mixture and displayed a series of behaviors signaling their preferences for the former. Moreover, the infants' willingness to accept the flavored cereal is correlated with their mothers' reported willingness to try novel foods and flavors.

Mennella, J. A. and G. K. Beauchamp (2002). "Flavor experiences during formula feeding are related to preferences during childhood." Early Human Development 68(2): 71-82.
	
Mennella, J. A., C. E. Griffin, et al. (2004). "Flavor programming during infancy." Pediatrics 113(4): 840-845.
	
Mennella, J. A., C. P. Jagnow, et al. (2001). "Prenatal and postnatal flavor learning by human infants."  107(6): art. no.-e88.
	Background. Flavors from the mother's diet during pregnancy are transmitted to amniotic fluid and swallowed by the fetus. Consequently, the types of food eaten by women during pregnancy and, hence, the flavor principles of their culture may be experienced by the infants before their first exposure to solid foods. Some of these same flavors will later be experienced by infants in breast milk, a liquid that, like amniotic fluid, comprises flavors that directly reflect the foods, spices, and beverages eaten by the mother. The present study tested the hypothesis that experience with a flavor in amniotic fluid or breast milk modifies the infants' acceptance and enjoyment of similarly flavored foods at weaning. Methods. Pregnant women who planned on breastfeeding their infants were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 groups. The women consumed either 300 mL of carrot juice or water for 4 days per week for 3 consecutive weeks during the last trimester of pregnancy and then again during the first 2 months of lactation. The mothers in 1 group drank carrot juice during pregnancy and water during lactation; mothers in a second group drank water during pregnancy and carrot juice during lactation, whereas those in the control group drank water during both pregnancy and lactation. Approximately 4 weeks after the mothers began complementing their infants' diet with cereal and before the infants had ever been fed foods or juices containing the flavor of carrots, the infants were videotaped as they fed, in counterbalanced order, cereal prepared with water during 1 test session and cereal prepared with carrot juice during another. Immediately after each session, the mothers rated their infants' enjoyment of the food on a 9-point scale. Results. The results demonstrated that the infants who had exposure to the flavor of carrots in either amniotic fluid or breast milk behaved differently in response to that flavor in a food base than did nonexposed control infants. Specifically, previously exposed infants exhibited fewer negative facial expressions while feeding the carrot-flavored cereal compared with the plain cereal, whereas control infants whose mothers drank water during pregnancy and lactation exhibited no such difference. Moreover, those infants who were exposed to carrots prenatally were perceived by their mothers as enjoying the carrot-flavored cereal more compared with the plain cereal. Although these same tendencies were observed for the amount of cereal consumed and the length of the feeds, these findings were not statistically significant. Conclusions. Prenatal and early postnatal exposure to a flavor enhanced the infants' enjoyment of that flavor in solid foods during weaning. These very early flavor experiences may provide the foundation for cultural and ethnic differences in cuisine.

Mennella, J. A., Y. Pepino, et al. (2005). "Genetic and environmental determinants of bitter perception and sweet preferences."  115(2): E216-E222.
	Objective. Flavor is the primary dimension by which young children determine food acceptance. However, children are not merely miniature adults because sensory systems mature postnatally and their responses to certain tastes differ markedly from adults. Among these differences are heightened preferences for sweet-tasting and greater rejection of bitter-tasting foods. The present study tests the hypothesis that genetic variations in the newly discovered TAS2R38 taste gene as well as cultural differences are associated with differences in sensitivity to the bitter taste of propylthiouracil ( PROP) and preferences for sucrose and sweet-tasting foods and beverages in children and adults. Design. Genomic DNA was extracted from cheek cells of a racially and ethnically diverse sample of 143 children and their mothers. Alleles of the gene TAS2R38 were genotyped. Participants were grouped by the first variant site, denoted A49P, because the allele predicts a change from the amino acid alanine ( A) to proline ( P) at position 49. Henceforth, individuals who were homozygous for the bitter-insensitive allele are referred to as AA, those who were heterozygous for the bitter-insensitive allele are referred to as AP, and those who were homozygous for the bitter-sensitive allele are referred to as PP. Using identical procedures for children and mothers, PROP sensitivity and sucrose preferences were assessed by using forced-choice procedures that were embedded in the context of games that minimized the impact of language development and were sensitive to the cognitive limitations of pediatric populations. Participants were also asked about their preferences in cereals and beverages, and mothers completed a standardized questionnaire that measured various dimensions of their children's temperament. Results. Genetic variation of the A49P allele influenced bitter perception in children and adults. However, the phenotype-genotype relationship was modified by age such that 64% of heterozygous children, but only 43% of the heterozygous mothers, were sensitive to the lowest concentration ( 56 micromoles/liter) of PROP. Genotypes at the TAS2R38 locus were significantly related to preferences for sucrose and for sweet-tasting beverages and foods such as cereals in children. AP and PP children preferred significantly higher concentrations of sucrose solutions than did AA children. They were also significantly less likely to include milk or water as 1 of their 2 favorite beverages (18.6% vs 40%) and were more likely to include carbonated beverages as 1 of their most preferred beverages 46.4% vs 28.9%). PP children liked cereals and beverages with a significantly higher sugar content. There were also significant main effects of race/ ethnicity on preferences and food habits. As a group, black children liked cereals with a significantly higher sugar content than did white children, and they were also significantly more likely to report that they added sugar to their cereals. Unlike children, there was no correspondence between TAS2R38 genotypes and sweet preference in adults. Here, the effects of race/ ethnicity were the strongest determinants, thus suggesting that cultural forces and experience may override this genotype effect on sweet preferences. Differences in taste experiences also affected mother - child interaction, especially when the 2 resided in different sensory worlds. That is, children who had 1 or 2 bitter-sensitive alleles, but whose mothers had none, were perceived by their mothers as being more emotional than children who had no bitter-sensitive alleles. Conclusion. Variations in a taste receptor gene accounted for a major portion of individual differences in PROP bitterness perception in both children and adults, as well as a portion of individual differences in preferences for sweet flavors in children but not in adults. These findings underscore the advantages of studying genotype effects on behavioral outcomes in children, especially as they relate to taste preferences because cultural forces may sometimes override the A49P genotypic effects in adults. New knowledge about the molecular basis of food likes and dislikes in children, a generation that will struggle with obesity and diabetes, may suggest strategies to overcome diet-induced diseases.

Merritt, S. (2005). "Yes, I'm one of those lone parents - and what's so bad about that?"
	More than a quarter of families in the UK now have only one parent. The article considers how attitudes towards single parenthood have changed since the 1980s. It remains a difficult option, requiring courage, tenacity and a strong support network, but it has to be better than feeling obliged to persist in an unhappy, abusive or unfulfilling relationship, or better than missing out on motherhood altogether.

Meshcherkina, E. (2002). "Sociological conceptualization of masculinity." SOTSIOLOGICHESKIE ISSLEDOVANIYA(11): 15-25.
	
Messner, M. A. (1997). Politics of masculinities: men in movements. Thousand Oaks. Calif. ; London, Sage Publications.
	
Mestdag, I. (2005). "Disappearance of the traditional meal: Temporal, social and spatial destructuration."  45(1): 62-74.
	The disappearance of the 'traditional' meal was explored, comparing Flemish time budget data for 1988 and 1999. In 1988, 463 respondents between 21 and 40 years old kept a diary for three consecutive days. In 1999, 599 respondents followed the same procedure for a full week. Respondents registered all their activities, including timing, duration. location and other parties to the interaction. Respondents also completed a questionnaire. Questionnaire and time budget data from the 1988 and 1999 surveys were merged into a single, combined database. Separate analyses were undertaken for weekdays, Saturdays and Sundays. Data from 1988 and 1999 were compared, bearing in mind the temporal, social and spatial features of the meal. The results indicate that the Flemish are not eating indiscriminately, in terms of time, place or the company of others. There was no sign of a shift between 1988 and 1999 towards disorganisation of the meal in these terms. All in all, Flemish eating practices show a high level of structure in the temporal, spatial and social organisation of the meal. (c) 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Mestdag, I. and J. Vandeweyer (2005). "Where Has Family Time Gone? In Search of Joint Family Activities and the Role of the Family Meal in 1966 and 1999." Journal of Family History 30(3): 304-323.
	The idea that family meal time is disappearing is gaining growing attention in Western societies. This article investigates to what extent family time has decreased and what place the family meal has within family time. Belgian time-budget data gathered in 1966 and 1999 were used to answer these research questions. Analyses show parents were spending less time together as a family and also on family meals, especially on working days. Nevertheless, the growing number of dual-earner families was not responsible for the decline in family meal time between 1966 and 1999. 6 Tables, 3 Figures. [Reprinted by permission of Sage Publications Inc., copyright 2005.].

Mezzacappa, E. S., W. Guethlein, et al. (2002). "Breast-feeding and maternal health in online mothers." Annals of Behavioral Medicine 24(4): 299-309.
	
Mezzacappa, E. S. and E. S. Katkin (2002). "Breast-feeding is associated with reduced perceived stress and negative mood in mothers." Health Psychology 21(2): 187-193.
	
Mezzacappa, E. S., R. M. Kelsey, et al. (2005). "Breast feeding, bottle feeding, and maternal autonomic responses to stress." Journal of Psychosomatic Research 58(4): 351-365.
	
Mezzacappa, E. S., A. Y. Tu, et al. (2003). "Lactation and weaning effects on physiological and behavioral response to stressors." Physiology & Behavior 78(1): 1-9.
	
Michailidou, M. (2000). Femininity confessed : the transformation of feminine experience from postwar women's magazines to the modern talk show, University of London.
	
Michalski, J. H. "Housing Affordability, Social Policy and Economic Conditions: Food Bank Users in the Greater Toronto Area, 1990-2000."
	The following paper examines trends in the social & economic correlates of food bank usage in the Greater Toronto Area through annual interviews with food bank users between 1990-2000. The analysis tests the thesis that the effects of social assistance rate reductions & housing costs contributed to the economic vulnerability of these already marginalized families & households. Descriptive statistics & multivariate regression modeling were used to assess changes in post-shelter income available to food bank users prior to (1990-1995) & following Ontario social assistance cuts (1996-2000). The results confirm the importance of social assistance rate reductions & housing affordability problems as factors contributing to the decline in post-shelter income available to food bank users. 4 Tables, 5 Figures, 66 References. Adapted from the source document.

Middleton, P. (1992). The Inward Gaze. London, Routledge.
	
Mikkelsen, B. E., V. B. Rasmussen, et al. (2005). "The role of school food service in promoting healthy eating at school - a perspective from an ad hoc group on nutrition in schools, Council of Europe." Food Service Technology 5(1): 7-15.
	
Miles, S. (1998). Consumerism: as a Way of Life. London, Sage.
	
Miller, A. B. and C. B. Keys "Understanding dignity in the lives of homeless persons."
	The current investigation is a planned, systematic study of dignity as critical to understanding the experience of homelessness and improving services and programs for the homeless. Specifically, we conducted a thematic content analysis of interviews with 24 homeless men and women to identify their perception of specific environmental events that validate and invalidate dignity. In addition, we explored the impact that these events have on homeless persons. Eight types of events were identified that sustain dignity such as being cared for by staff and having resources available to meet basic needs. Eight types of events were found that undermine dignity, such as being yelled at or insulted by staff persons and having staff use rules in an excessive and arbitrary way. Two outcomes followed the sustenance of dignity including increased self-worth and motivation to exit homelessness. Three outcomes followed the undermining of dignity including anger, depression, and feelings of worthlessness. The results suggest that dignity is an important variable to consider in understanding the experience of homelessness. Policies and programs that support validating the dignity of homeless persons are encouraged.

Miller, A. B. and C. B. Keys. "Understanding dignity in the lives of homeless persons."
	The current investigation is a planned, systematic study of dignity as critical to understanding the experience of homelessness and improving services and programs for the homeless. Specifically, we conducted a thematic content analysis of interviews with 24 homeless men and women to identify their perception of specific environmental events that validate and invalidate dignity. In addition, we explored the impact that these events have on homeless persons. Eight types of events were identified that sustain dignity such as being cared for by staff and having resources available to meet basic needs. Eight types of events were found that undermine dignity, such as being yelled at or insulted by staff persons and having staff use rules in an excessive and arbitrary way. Two outcomes followed the sustenance of dignity including increased self-worth and motivation to exit homelessness. Three outcomes followed the undermining of dignity including anger, depression, and feelings of worthlessness. The results suggest that dignity is an important variable to consider in understanding the experience of homelessness. Policies and programs that support validating the dignity of homeless persons are encouraged.

Miller, D. (1987). Material Culture and Mass Consumption. Oxford, Basil Blackwell.
	
Miller, D. (1998). Making Love in Supermarkets. The Everyday Life Reader. B. Highmore. London, Routledge.
	
Miller, D. E. "Experiencing homelessness. Review essay."
	Reviews Dordick, G. A., Something left to lose: personal relations and survival among New York's homeless. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1997; and Desjarlais, R., Shelter blues: sanity and selfhood among the homeless. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1997. Dordick explore 5 alternatives which face homeless people in their pursuit of shelter and food, while Desjarlais focuses on one setting: Station Street Shelter in Boston, a facility located in the Massachusetts State Service Center near city hall, which serves homeless people who are mentally ill. A common theme is that physical location has a dramatic impact on how people experience their lives. The books challenge the stereotypes that homeless people are less than human, victims of fate who exercise no control over their lives, or that they are autonomous beings who do not live in networks of friendships and relationships. (Quotes from original text)

Miller, D. E. "Experiencing homelessness. Review essay."
	Reviews Dordick, G. A., Something left to lose: personal relations and survival among New York's homeless. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1997; and Desjarlais, R., Shelter blues: sanity and selfhood among the homeless. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1997. Dordick explore 5 alternatives which face homeless people in their pursuit of shelter and food, while Desjarlais focuses on one setting: Station Street Shelter in Boston, a facility located in the Massachusetts State Service Center near city hall, which serves homeless people who are mentally ill. A common theme is that physical location has a dramatic impact on how people experience their lives. The books challenge the stereotypes that homeless people are less than human, victims of fate who exercise no control over their lives, or that they are autonomous beings who do not live in networks of friendships and relationships. (Quotes from original text)

Millum, T. Images of Woman: Advertising in Women's Magazines 
	
Ming, L. L. Y. (1996). The local meets the global : a study of upmarket women's magazines in Hong Kong; the case of Cosmopolitan, University of Sussex.
	
Minkovitz, C., D. Strobino, et al. (2001). "Early effects of the healthy steps for young children program."  155(4): 470-479.
	Objective: The Healthy Steps for Young Children Program (HS) incorporates early child development specialists and enhanced developmental services into routine pediatric care. An evaluation of HS is being conducted at 6 randomization and 9 quasi-experimental sites. Services received, satisfaction with services, and parent practices were assessed when infants were aged 2 to 4 months. Methods: Telephone interviews with mothers were conducted for 2631 intervention (response rate, 89%) and 2265 control (response rate, 87%) families. Analyses were conducted separately for randomization and quasi-experimental sites and adjusted for baseline differences between intervention and control groups. Hierarchical linear models assessed overall adjusted effects, while accounting for within-site correlation of outcomes. Results: Intervention families were considerably more likely than controls to report receiving 4 or more developmental services and home visits and discussing 5 infant development topics. Thc) also were more likely to be satisfied and less likely to be dissatisfied with care from their pediatric provider and were less likely to place babies in the prone sleep position or feed them water. The program did not affect breast-feeding continuation. Differences in the percentage of parents who showed picture books to their infants, fed them cereal, followed routines, and played with them daily were found only at the quasi-experimental sites and may reflect Factors unrelated to PIS. Conclusions: intervention families received more developmental services during the first 2 to 4 months of their child's life and were happier with care received than were control families. Future surveys and medical record reviews H ill address whether these findings persist and translate into improved language development, better utilization of well-child care, and an effect on costs.

Mintz, S. (1986). Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History. Harmondsworth, Penguin.
	
Moag-Stahlberg, A., A. Miles, et al. (2003). "What kids say they do and what parents think kids are doing: The ADAF/Knowledge Networks 2003 Family Nutrition and Physical Activity Study." Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 103(11): 1541-6.
	
Molyneaux, J. and J. Irvine. (2004). "Service User and Carer Involvement in Social Work Training: A Long and Winding Road?"
	In recent years the imperative to involve service users & carers at every level of care, service, & policy development has been extended to include involving users & carers in the training of health & social care professionals. Guidance on how this is to be achieved in practice is, however, limited. This paper describes work undertaken to explore how an Approved Social Work Program in northern England could involve service users & carers more fully & develop an integrated approach to service user & carer involvement in this & other social work programs. Following a review of the literature in this area, the results of a series of meetings with individual & groups of service users & carers are presented, together with a survey of ASW programs. It then goes on to consider the implications for service user & carer involvement in the new social work degree. 1 Figure, 29 References. Adapted from the source document.

Monarrez-Espino, J., T. Greiner, et al. (2004). "Perception of food and body shape as dimensions of western acculturation potentially linked to overweight in Tarahumara women of Mexico."  43(3): 193-212.
	A recent survey in northern Mexico found that 52.8% of adult Tarahumara women were overweight. A process of "de-Indianization" of their diet was hypothesized. The present study aimed at exploring food and body shape perceptions as dimensions contributing to the role that Western acculturation could be playing in increasing overweight in this isolated indigenous population. Data were obtained from structured interviews of a type commonly used in cognitive anthropology. Partial rank ordering of photographic series' depicting dishes, food preparation methods and drinks, and constrained pile sorting of photographs portraying Tarahumara women arranged from the thinnest to the fattest were used to assess food shape perceptions, respectively. Data analytic techniques employed included cultural consensus, tabu search clustering, and multidimensional scaling. Respondents judged mestizo and Western foods as tastier than traditional foods. Spanish language capacity was linked to preferences for mestizo and Western foods and for fatter body shapes as ideals for beauty, health, and motherhood. Thin-normal women were considered the most industrious. Speaking Spanish emerged as the only clear element of acculturation that could be defined.

Moore, M., J. Sixsmith, et al. (1996). Children’s Reflections on Family Life. London, The Falmer Press.
	
Morgan, D., J. (1996). Family Connections: An introduction to Family Studies. Cambridge, Polity Press.
	
Morgan, D., H, J. (1999). Risk and Family Practices: Accounting for Change and Fluidity in Family Life. The New Family? E. B. Silva and C. Smart. London, Sage: 13-30.
	
Morgan, D. (2003). "The masculinity studies reader." JOURNAL OF GENDER STUDIES 12(2): 146-147.
	
Morgan, D. H. J. (1992). Discovering men. London, Routledge.
	
Morgan, D. H. J. (1996). Family Connections Cambridge, Polity Press.
	
Morgan, D. K., Kenneth (2001). "Children in Poverty Do State Policies Matter." Social Science Quarterly 82(3).
	Objective. Variations in childhood poverty are primarily responsive to changes in family structure and economic conditions. Some research also suggests that federal and state programs may help alleviate poverty among children. This research incorporates measures of family characteristics, economic conditions, and policy variables in estimating changes in childhood poverty among the U.S. states. 
Methods. The research design is a pooled time series for all 50 states for the years 1987-1996. 
Results. Economic and family circumstances indeed are the major forces affecting children in poverty among the states. The unemployment rate for females, the percentage births to unmarried mothers, and the percentage of single-parent families are especially useful estimators. Public policies are important as well: the state or federal minimum wage, Aid to Families with Dependent Children/food stamp payments, the Earned Income Tax Credit, and two measures of state child support effort. 
Conclusions. Although at times controversial, actions by the states and federal government can help reduce childhood poverty among U.S. states.

Morrell, R. (2005). "So what's a boy? - Addressing issues of masculinity and schooling." EDUCATIONAL REVIEW 57(2): 264-266.
	
Morris, A. B., N. (2001). Social movements and oppositional consciousness. Oppositional consciousness. I. J. M. A. M. E. . Chicago, Universtity of Chicago Press.
	
Morrow, A. L., M. L. Guerrero, et al. (1999). "Efficacy of home-based peer counselling to promote exclusive breastfeeding: a randomised controlled trial."  353(9160): 1226-1231.
	Background Exclusive breastfeeding is recommended worldwide but not commonly practised. We undertook a randomised controlled study of the efficacy of home-based peer counselling to increase the proportion of exclusive breastfeeding among mothers and infants residing in periurban Mexico City. Methods Two intervention groups with different counselling frequencies, six visits (44) and three visits (52), were compared with a control group (34) that had no intervention. From March, 1995, to September, 1996, 170 pregnant women were identified by census and invited to participate in the study. Home visits were made during pregnancy and early post partum by peer counsellors recruited from the same community and trained by La Leche League. Data were collected by independent interview. Exclusive breastfeeding was defined by WHO criteria. Findings 130 women participated in the study. Only 12 women refused participation. Study groups did not differ in baseline factors. At 3 months post partum, exclusive breastfeeding was practised by 67% of six-visit, 50% of three-visit, and 12% of control mothers (intervention groups vs controls, p<0.001; six-visit vs three-visit, p=0.02). Duration of breastfeeding was significantly (p=0.02) longer in intervention groups than in controls, and fewer-intervention than control infants had an episode of diarrhoea (12% vs 26%, p=0.03). Interpretation This is the first reported community-based randomised trial of breastfeeding promotion. Early and repeated contact with peer counsellors was associated with a significant increase in breastfeeding exclusivity and duration. The two-fold decrease in diarrhoea demonstrates the importance of breastfeeding promotion to infant health.

Morrow, V. (2001). " 
Young people's explanations and experiences of social exclusion: retrieving Bourdieu's concept of social capital,." International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy 21((4/5/6):): 37-63.
	
Morrow, V. (2006). "Understanding Gender Differences in Context: Implications for Young Children’s Everyday Lives." children and society 20(2): 92-104.
	
Mort, F. (1996). Cultures of consumption : masculinities and social space in late twentieth-century Britain. London ; New York, Routledge.
	
Mosley, J. and L. Tiehen. "The Food Safety Net after Welfare Reform: Use of Private and Public Food Assistance in the Kansas City Metropolitan Area."
	This study documents reliance on the private & public food safety net in the Kansas City metropolitan area. While the use of food pantries is widespread, the frequency of food pantry use is low compared to food stamp use. However, almost 60% of food pantry recipients also received food stamps at some time during the studied period. Between 1998 & 2001, just over one-third of food stamp clients also visited a pantry. The data suggest that households are not substituting one form of assistance for the other but rather are accessing multiple types of assistance when necessary. 2 Tables, 4 Figures, 38 References. Adapted from the source document.

Moynihan, P. J. and R. D. Holt (1996). "The national diet and nutrition survey of 1.5 to 4.5 year old children: Summary of the findings of the dental survey."  181(9): 328-332.
	A dental health survey was included as part of a large scale study of nutrition in preschool children. The survey was carried out in 1992/93 and was published in spring 1995. Information on dental hearth status and on dietary intake was gathered from a total of 1658 children from 100 geographical sectors in the United Kingdom. This article summarises the main findings and highlights some of the most important findings regarding dental health and its relationship to dietary factors. Seventeen per cent of children had some caries experience and in 83% of cases this was untreated. Dental decay was most strongly related to social background, The factors most strongly related to caries prevalence were: receipt of income benefits, in the 1.5-2.5-year-old children; the educational status of the mother in the 2.5-3.5-year-old children and social class of the head of household in the 3.5-4.5-year-old children. Consumption of sugary drinks at bedtime, children being left to brush their teeth themselves, household expenditure on confectionery and geographical region were also strongly associated with caries prevalence.

Mueller, M. M. and G. H. Elder (2003). "Family contingencies across the generations: Grandparent- grandchild relationships in holistic perspective." Journal of Marriage and the Family 65(2): 404-417.
	Family relationships do not occur in isolation but rather are embedded within greater systems of family ties. In recognition of the need to study families holistically, we explore how relations between grandparents and grandchildren are contingent upon a matrix of intergenerational relationships. Using data from the Iowa Youth and Families Project, our analyses focus on person-centered types of grandparent-grandchild relationships and the legacy of social ties across the generations, as mediated by other family relationships. We find multiple dimensions of grandparents' involvement with their grandchildren to be associated with (a) whether the grandparents knew their own grandparents when they were young, (b) the grandparent's perceptions of contact and closeness with the target grandchild, and (c) nuances in the relationships of grandparents with the parent generation

Mullaney, L. and J. Walsh (2005). "Psychological factors influencing infant breast-feeding in first-time mothers: An application of a modified version of the theory of planned behaviour." Psychology & Health 20: 184-185.
	
Munro, E. (2004). "The Impact of Audit on Social Work Practice,." British Journal of Social Work 34,(1075-1095).
	
Muntaner, C., Lynch, H. & Smith, G. D. (2000). "Social capital and the third way in public health',." Critical Public Health 10(92): 107-124.
	
Muntaner, C., Lynch, J. Smith, G.D. (2001). "Social capital, disorganised communities, and the third way: understanding the retreat from structural inequalities in epidemiology and public health,." International Journal of Health Services 31: 213-237.
	
Murcott, A. Sociological and social anthropological approaches to food and eating.
	
Murcott, A. (1982). "Menus, Meals and Platefuls: Observations on Advice about Diet in Pregnancy." The International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy 2(4): 1-11.
	In this time of renewed effort to promote policies that will persuade people to eat a healthy diet, pregnancy is identified as a particularly important period for proper nutrition. Twelve items of "popular" antenatal education literature & data collected during a study of food concepts among expectant mothers (10 of whom completed card-sorting tasks of familiar food items) are analyzed, & the data categorized under 5 headings: nutritional, culinary, reaction, attributes, & social context. The literature presents diet information in predominantly nutritional terms, eg, of food groups, or with reference to nutritional composition. The Ss' responses were more spontaneous, discussing food in terms of meals & their social context. The tentative conclusion is that the social organization of family & household may furnish conceptions of food & drink more salient than conceptions in nutritional/medical terms. This should be taken into account for nutrition education to be effective. 4 Tables. Modified AA.

Murcott, A. (1982). "On the Social Significance of the "cooked dinner" in South Wales." Social Science Information 21(4-5): 677-95.
	
Murcott, A. (1982). "On the social significance of the 'cooked dinner' in South Wales." Social Science Information/ Anthropology of Food 21(4/5): 677-696.
	
Murcott, A. (1983). Cooking and the cooked: a note on the domestic preparation of meals. The Sociology of Food and Eating. A. Murcott. Aldershot, Gower.
	
Murcott, A. (1983). "It's a pleasure to cook for him": food, mealtimes and gender in some South Wales households. The Public and the Private. E. Gamarnikow, D. Morgan, J. Purvis and D. Taylorson. London, Heinemann: 78-90.
	
Murcott, A., Ed. (1983). The Sociology of Food and Eating. Aldershot, Gower.
	
Murcott, A. (1983). The Sociology of food and eating : essays on the sociological significance of food. Aldershot, Hants, England, Gower Publishing.
	
Murcott, A. (1987). Conception of food : a sociological analysis.
	
Murcott, A. (1987). "Feeding the Children." Journal of Education Policy 2(3): 245-52.
	
Murcott, A. (1988). "Sociological and Social Anthropological Approaches to Food and Eating." World Review of Nutrition and Diet 55: 1-40.
	
Murcott, A. (1998). The Nation's Diet. The Nation's Diet. The Social Science of Food Choice. A. Murcott. Essex, Pearson Education.
	
Murcott, A., Ed. (1998). The Nation's Diet: The Social Science of Food Choice. Harlow, Addison Wesley Longman.
	
Murcott, A., Economic, et al. (1998). The nation's diet : the social science of food choice. London ; New York, Addison Wesley Longman.
	
Murcott, A. and A. v. Otterloo (1995). "Historical and social perspectives on food." Appetite 25(1): 97-98.
	
Murphy, C. F. (1995). Beyond feminism : toward a dialogue on difference. Washington, D.C., Catholic University of America Press.
	
Murphy, E., Parker, S., & Phipps, C. (1998). Food choices for babies. The Nation's Diet: The Social Science of Food Choice. A. Murcott. Essex, Addison Wesley Longman Ltd: 250-267.
	
Murphy, E. (1999). "'Breast is best': Infant feeding decisions and maternal deviance."  21(2): 187-208.
	The insistence that breast feeding confers unique and significant benefits upon children underpins both health policy and professional practice and is part of the context in which women decide how to feed their babies and, in turn, how they display and defend their decisions. This paper applies a framework, drawn from the sociology of deviance, to the accounts which women give of their infant feeding intentions. It draws upon data from a longitudinal qualitative interview study of the food choices made by mothers on behalf of their infants and young children, to show how such choices are irreducibly moral and that the ways in which women can be judged, or indeed judge themselves, to be deviant are legion. However mothers decide to feed their babies, infant feeding is a highly accountable matter. Whether they intend to breast feed or formula feed, women face considerable interactional challenges as they seek to establish that they are not only good mothers but also good partners and good women.

Murphy, E. (2000). "Risk, responsibility, and rhetoric in infant feeding."  29(3): 291-325.
	This article considers the way in which discourses around risk intersect with the ideology of motherhood in advanced liberal societies. Neoliberal citizens are urged to exercise prudence in the light of expert advice about minimizing risk through behavioral choices. The "good mother" is one who maximizes physical and psychological outcomes for her child, regardless of personal cost, Drawing on data from a longitudinal interview study of first-time mothers' feeding practices, the moral context that arises at the intersection of these two discourses is explored Experts advise mothers to breast-feed and warn of the short-, medium-, and long-term risks associated with formula feeding. Most mothers accept the validity of these expert claims and most initiate breastfeeding. However many abandon breastfeeding long before experts recommend This article considers how mothers deal with the threat to their identities as good, neoliberal citizens and mothers that arises from such feeding practices.

Murphy, E. (2003). "Expertise and forms of knowledge in the government of families." The Sociological Review 51(4): 433-462.
	'This paper examines the relationship between the state and the individual in relation to an aspect of mundane family life - the feeding of babies and young children. The nutritional status of children has long been a matter of national concern and infant feeding is an aspect of family life that has been subjected to substantial state intervention. It exemplifies the imposition upon women the 'biologico-moral responsibility' for the welfare of children (Foucault 1991b).
The state's attempts to influence mothers' feeding practices operate largely through education and persuasion. Through an elaborate state-sponsored apparatus, a strongly medicalised expert discourse is disseminated to mothers. This discourse warns mothers  of the risks of certain feeding practices and the benefits of others. It constrains mothers through a series of 'quiet coercions' (Foucault, 1991c) which seek to render them self-regulating subjects. Using data from a longitudinal interview study, this paper explores how mothers who are made responsible in these medical discourses around child nutrition, engage with, and resist and refuse expert advice. It examines, in particular, the rhetorical strategies which mothers use to defend themselves against the charges of maternal irresponsibility that arise when their practices do not conform to expert medical recommendations'.

Murphy, E. (2004). "Anticipatory accounts." Symbolic Interaction 27(2): 129-154.
	
Murray, J. "Soup Kitchens as Subversion: Circumventing Barriers to Feed the Hungry."
	In New Orleans, the act of feeding the homeless is considered subversion. Advocacy groups have been met with threats, fines, penalties, lawsuits, & other legal entanglements. In a downtown neighborhood, three nights a week, more than 100 hungry & homeless people are discreetly fed a hot, home-cooked meal. While food programs in the form of food pantries & soup kitchens are common nationwide, the local political climate has necessitated one organization to respond to hunger in innovative ways by conducting a 'mobile soup kitchen.' The mobile meal service that is the focus of the paper has no institutional affiliation, no formal organization, no program, no authoritarian hierarchy, & no objective other than to feed the hungry. Nothing is asked of & no restrictions are placed on those served. In the tradition of the early settlement house movement, local residents are 'good neighbors' & simply invite the hungry & the homeless to dinner. A description of this simple but unique local response to hunger is provided along with some ideas about why it works.

Murray, L., M. Woolgar, et al. (2003). "Self-exclusion from health care in women at high risk for postpartum depression." Journal of Public Health Medicine 25(2): 131-137.
	
Nagy, E., H. Orvos, et al. (2001). "Breastfeeding duration and previous breastfeeding experience."  90(1): 51-56.
	The aim of this study was to examine the effect of duration of earlier breastfeeding on the duration of breastfeeding with subsequent births. Medical records of 327 women who had had at least two deliveries were analysed; 89 of these women had had three deliveries. The average duration of breastfeeding increased from 6.01 mo to 6.85 mo with the second baby, but did not increase significantly with the third. A significant negative correlation was found between duration of first breastfeeding and change of breastfeeding duration at the second breastfeeding. Mothers who breastfed their first child for 0-7 mo significantly increased the duration of breastfeeding with the second child, whereas mothers who breastfed their firstborn for 8 mo or longer significantly reduced breastfeeding with the second baby. Conclusion: Results support earlier studies showing that duration of breastfeeding of the second child is significantly related to previous breastfeeding experience. Results also suggest that previous breastfeeding experience may lead mothers to regulate duration of subsequent breastfeeding toward a level that is optimal for them. The results are interpreted with respect to societal changes in breastfeeding patterns, as well as the role of material learning in breastfeeding behaviour.

National-Family-and-Parenting-Institute. (2005). "Food Guide." from http://www.e-parents.org/data/food_guide/index.htm.
	
Nayga, R. (1996). "Socio-demographic effects on the importance of nutrition in food   shopping." American Journal of Agricultural Economics 78(5): 1402.
	
Nenadic, S. (2000). "Leah Leneman (1944-1999)." Scottish Economic and Social History 20(1): 1-2.
	Obituary for Leah Leneman (1944-99), whose first career was as a stage actress in New York. She later moved to London where she worked first in the airline industry and then as an editor and author of cooking books. A visit to Scotland sparked her interest in Scottish history and led to her taking a degree at the University of Edinburgh. After completing her Ph.D. she embarked on a career as an independent researcher, lecturer, and writer. She had a particular interest in the relationship between men and women and published numerous books and articles on this subject. She became a popular and highly respected historian before her death from breast cancer in 1999.

Nestor, P. A. (1982). "A New Departure in Women's Publishing: the English Woman's Journal and the Victoria Magazine." Victorian Periodicals Review 15(3): 93-106.
	Discusses changes in the structure and aims of two successful women's magazines concerned with women's rights, 1850-70.

Neumark-Sztainer, D., M. Wall, et al. (2004). "Are family meal patterns associated with disordered eating behaviors among adolescents?"  35(5): 350-359.
	Purpose: To examine associations between family meal patterns (frequency, priority, atmosphere, and structure of family meals) and disordered eating (unhealthy weight control behaviors, binge eating, and chronic dieting) in adolescent girls and boys. Methods: Survey and anthropometric data were collected from 4746 ethnically diverse adolescents from public middle and senior high schools who participated in the Project EAT study (Eating Among Teens). Variables of interest included family meal patterns and disordered eating behaviors. Logistic regressions were performed to examine associations between family meal patterns and disordered eating behaviors adjusting for body mass index, sociodemographic characteristics, family connectedness, and weight pressures within the home. Results: In general, adolescents who reported more frequent family meals, high priority for family meals, a positive atmosphere at family meals, and a more structured family meal environment were less likely to engage in disordered eating. For example, 18.1% of girls who reported 1-2 family meals/week engaged in extreme weight control behaviors compared with 8.8% of girls who reported 3-4 family meals/week. Making family meals a priority, in spite of scheduling difficulties, emerged as the most consistent protective factor for disordered eating. Associations between family meal patterns and disordered eating behaviors tended to be stronger among girls than among boys. Family meal patterns were more consistently associated with unhealthy weight control behaviors than with chronic dieting and binge eating. Although associations between family meals and disordered eating were weakened after adjusting for more global familial factors, including family connectedness and weight-specific pressures within the home, a number of the associations remained statistically significant, suggesting an independent relationship between family meals and disordered eating. Conclusion: Family meals have the potential to play an important role in the prevention of unhealthy weight control behaviors among youth. Findings suggest that attention needs to be directed toward increasing family meal frequency and creating a positive environment for family meals. (C) Society for Adolescent Medicine, 2004.

Neumark-Sztainer D, H. P., Story M, Croll J, Perry C. (2003). "Family meal patterns: associations with sociodemographic characteristics and improved dietary intake among adolescents." Journal of the American Dietetic Association 103(3): 317-322.
	OBJECTIVE: To examine family meal patterns and associations with sociodemographic characteristics and dietary intake in adolescents. DESIGN: A population-based cross-sectional study design was employed. Adolescents completed the Project EAT (Eating Among Teens) survey and the Youth and Adolescent Food Frequency Questionnaire within their schools. Subjects/setting The study population included 4,746 middle and high school students from Minneapolis/St. Paul public schools with diverse racial and socioeconomic backgrounds. Statistical analyses Associations were examined using cross tabulations, log-linear modeling, and linear regressions. RESULTS: There was a wide distribution in the frequency of family meals during the previous week: never (14.0%), 1 or 2 times (19.1%), 3 to 6 times (40.1%), and 7 or more times (24.8%). Sociodemographic characteristics associated with more frequent family meals included gender (boys), school level (middle school), race (Asian American), mother's employment status (not employed), and socioeconomic status (high). Frequency of family meals was positively associated with intake of fruits, vegetables, grains, and calcium-rich foods and negatively associated with soft drink consumption. Positive associations were also seen between frequency of family meals and energy; protein (percentage of total calories); calcium; iron; folate; fiber; and vitamins A, C, E, and B-6. CONCLUSIONS: Family meals appear to play an important role in promoting positive dietary intake among adolescents. Feasible ways to increase the frequency of family meals should be explored with adolescents and their families.

Neumark-Sztainer D, W., M, Perry, C,  and Story, M. (2003). "Correlates of fruit and vegetable intake among adolescents. Findings from Project EAT." Preventive Medicine 37(198-208).
	Background. This study aims to identify correlates of fruits and vegetables from within the domains of personal factors (taste preferences, health/nutrition attitudes, weight/body concerns, and self-efficacy), behavioral factors (meal frequency, fast food intake, and weight control behaviors), and socio-environmental factors (social support for healthy eating, family meal patterns, food security, socio-economic status, and home availability of fruits/vegetables). This study further aims to identify correlates of home availability and taste preferences for fruits/vegetables, and to explore patterns of interaction between availability and taste preferences.
Methods. The population included 3957 adolescents from 31 public middle and high schools in Minnesota. Structural equation modelling was used for model testing.
Results. The strongest correlates of fruit/vegetable intake were home availability of fruits/vegetables and taste preferences of fruits/vegetables. The final model explained 13% of the variance in fruit/vegetable intake, 45% of the variance in home availability, and 28% of the variance in taste preferences. Correlates of home availability included social support for healthy eating, family meal patterns, family food security, and socioeconomic status. Correlates of taste preferences included health/nutrition attitudes and home availability of fruits/vegetables. A test of interaction effects indicated that when home availability of fruits/vegetables was low, intake patterns did not differ, regardless of taste preferences. In contrast, even when taste preferences for fruits/vegetables were low, if fruits/vegetables were available, intake increased.
Conclusions. Interventions to increase fruit/vegetable intake in adolescents need to target socio-environmental factors such as greater availability of fruits/vegetables.

Newholm, T. (2005). Case Studying Ethical Consumers' Projects and Strategies. The Ethical Consumer. R. Harrison, T. Newholm and D. Shaw. London, Sage: 107-124.
	
Newman, J. ( 2000). Beyond the New Public Management? Modernising Public Services. New Managerialism New Welfare. S. G. J.  Clarke, S. & E. McLaughlin (Eds). London, Sage.
	
NHS, D. (2002). The National School Fruit Scheme - Healthy Schools.
	
NICE (2003). Antenatal care: Routine care for the healthy pregnant woman. NHS, National Institute for Clinical Excellence. Clinical Guideline 6.
	
NICE (2003). Routine antenatal care for healthy pregnant women: Understanding NICE guidance - information for pregnant women, their families and the public. NHS.
	
NICE (2004). Type 1 diabetes in adults - Understanding NICE guidelines - information for adults with type 1 diabetes, their families and carers, and the public. NHS, National Institute for Clinical Excellence: 1-61.
	
Nickerson, K. (2006). "Environmental contaminants in breast milk." Journal of Midwifery & Womens Health 51(1): 26-34.
	
Nicklaus, S., V. Boggio, et al. (2004). "A prospective study of food preferences in childhood."  15(7-8): 805-818.
	This study has evaluated the impact of food choices at 2-3 years old on food preferences later in life, by following up the same subjects. Early preferences were estimated through recordings of food choices conducted in a nursery canteen in children aged 2-3, from 1982 to 1999. The children were free to choose the composition of their lunch from among a varied offering of eight dishes. The same subjects (n = 341) were contacted in 2001-2002 and so their ages varied from 17-22 (n = 91), 13-16 (n = 68), 8-12 (n = 99) to 4-7 (n = 83). Their present preference for the 80 foods most frequently presented at the nursery canteen was assessed through a questionnaire. Five food categories were studied: vegetables, animal products, cheeses, starchy foods and combined foods. The ranking of preference for the different food categories changed especially after puberty. However, regressions performed by food category indicated that for most categories, individual present preference was highly linked to individual preference at 2-3 years old. The link was the stronger for cheeses, followed to a lesser extent by animal products and vegetables. Present preferences increased with age for vegetables and they decreased with age for animal products only in females (to a lesser extent, they decreased with age for starchy foods and cheeses). Analyses by specific foods confirmed the global analysis. Individual present preference was linked to individual early preference for all mature cheeses and for 50% of the foods for other categories: most of these items were strongly flavoured. This study showed that preferences were stable from 2- to 3-year-old until young adulthood and that some changes in preference occurred during adolescence.

Noble, L., I. Hand, et al. (2003). "Factors influencing initiation of breast-feeding among urban women." American Journal of Perinatology 20(8): 477-483.
	
Noorani, S. (2005). "Food in Schools: Update." Nutrition Bulletin 30(3): 278-281.
	
Nordin, S., D. A. Broman, et al. (2004). "A longitudinal descriptive study of self-reported abnormal smell and taste perception in pregnant women."  29(5): 391-402.
	Self-reported abnormal sensitivity, qualitative distortions and phantom sensations with respect to smell and taste was assessed with a longitudinal design, based on questions referring to gestational weeks 13-16 and 31-34 of pregnancy in comparison with 9-12 weeks post partum and with non-pregnant women with corresponding time durations and intervals. The results show that abnormal smell and/or taste perception was reported by 76% of the pregnant women, typically believed to be caused by their pregnancy. Increased smell sensitivity was found to be very common at the early stage of pregnancy (67% of all pregnant respondents) and occasionally accompanied by qualitative smell distortions (17%) and phantom smells (14%). The smell abnormalities were less common at the late pregnancy stage and almost absent post partum. Abnormal taste sensitivity was fairly commonly reported (26%), often described as increased bitter sensitivity and decreased salt sensitivity. These results, suggesting that abnormal smell and/or taste perception is experienced by a large majority of pregnant women, imply that further research is needed to understand to what extent these chemosensory changes may underlie food aversions and craving with implications for food intake during pregnancy.

Norris, F. J., M. S. Larkin, et al. (2002). "Factors affecting the introduction of complementary foods in the preterm infant."  56(5): 448-454.
	Objectives: The aim of the study was to identify current infant feeding practices among carers of preterm infants. Design: Structured interviews on milk and complementary feeding practices were conducted with mothers of preterm infants at intervals until infants were 12 months corrected age. Setting: Recruitment took place in three local Surrey hospitals over a 2y period. Subjects: Two-hundred and fifty-three preterm infants (139 male, 114 female) including 33 sets of twins and three sets of triplets were recruited. Results: Forty-nine percent of the preterm infant group received first solid foods (the commencement of 'weaning') before the current Department of Health (DoH) guideline. The mean +/- s.e.m. weaning age from birth was 17.1 +/- 0.23 weeks. Ninety-five percent of the infants were weaned before the DoH guideline when the data was examined from term (mean 11.5 +/- s.e.m. 0.21 weeks). Twenty-one percent were weaned before the DoH guideline for preterm infants which is that 'the infant weighs at least 5 kg' (mean 5.61 +/- s.e.m. 0.01 kg). Human milk-fed infants were significantly lighter at weaning than combined milk-fed infants (5.32 +/- 0.12 vs 5.72 +/- 0.01 kg; P < 0.05) even though they were weaned at a similar age. Infant formula-fed infants (mean weaning age from term 10.2 +/- 0.47 weeks) were weaned significantly earlier than both human milk-fed (11.9 +/- 0.49 weeks; P < 0.05) and combined milk-fed (11.9 +/- 0.25 weeks; P < 0.005) infants. Conclusions: The introduction of complementary foods varied widely between carers of preterm infants and compliance with DoH guidelines was poor. Further studies on preterm infants are necessary to see if weaning practices affect long-term growth and morbidity and to provide a basis for the development of appropriate recommendations.

Northstone, K., P. Emmett, et al. (2001). "The effect of age of introduction to lumpy solids on foods eaten and reported feeding difficulties at 6 and 15 months."  14(1): 43-54.
	Aim The study aimed to document the dietary patterns of infants and determine the development of feeding difficulties as perceived by the mother according to the age at which lumpy solids were introduced into the diet. Study design Information was collected from a geographically representative population of 9360 mothers of infants born in 1991/92, part of the Avon Longitudinal Study of Pregnancy and Childhood (ALSPAC). Self-completion questionnaires enquiring about the foods and drinks consumed by the infant and any difficulties experienced by the mothers in feeding her child at both 6 months and 15 months of age were collected. Methods Infants were divided into three groups based on the age at which they were first introduced to 'lumpy' solids: 10.7% were introduced before 6 months of age, 71.7% were introduced between 6 and 9 months and 17.6% were introduced after 10 months of age. The foods eaten by those introduced before 6 months and after 10 months were compared to those introduced between 6 and 9 months. Behaviours and problems as reported by the mother were also assessed. Results Those infants who were introduced to lumpy solids at the earliest ages consumed a greater variety of family foods at the age of 6 months, while those introduced at 10 months or later had been given fewer solids of all types by 6 months of age and at 15 months were significantly less likely to be having family foods when compared to those introduced between 6 and 9 months. At each age, those introduced late (10 months or older) to lumps were more difficult to feed and had more definite likes and dislikes. Conclusions A significant difference was observed in the variety of foods given to infants at both 6 and 15 months according to the age at which they began to have lumps in their food, and feeding difficulties were more likely to occur when lumps were introduced at or after 10 months of age.

Norwood, H., E. A. Lacey, et al. (2005). Factors affecting food culture choice in three generations of people in Barnsley, Fit for the Future.
	
Nucci, L. and J. G. Smetana (1996). "Mothers' concepts of young children's areas of personal freedom."  67(4): 1870-1886.
	White suburban working- to upper-middle-class mothers (N = 40) of children ages 5 and 7 were interviewed regarding their concepts of children's areas of personal discretion, autonomy, and individuality. Mothers treated standardized moral, conventional, and prudential items as issues that mothers should control, while standardized personal items were treated as up to the child. In open-ended interviews, mothers reported setting limits around issues of safety, family conventions, and daily routines but permitted children to make decisions about food, recreational activities, clothes, and playmates. Mothers viewed mother-child conflict as occurring over these same issues and viewed children's choices as helping them to develop autonomy and competence. Mothers viewed their roles as educators and nurturers and valued the development of individuality in their children, which was thought to emerge in infancy or toddlerhood. Few age differences were observed, but gender differences were found in the ways mothers characterized boys and girls' resistances to parental authority and in the content of mother-child disputes. Results were interpreted in terms of the emergence of the personal domain in children.

Nwakeze, P. C., S. Magura, et al. "Homelessness, substance misuse, and access to public entitlements in a soup kitchen population."
	The study examined the effects of homelessness on access to public entitlements (Medicaid and food stamp programs) in a soup kitchen population. Data were collected between 1997 and 1999 from a sample of 343 adults at two soup kitchen sites in New York City. Five hypotheses, focusing on the effects of housing status (literal homelessness, unstable housing, and domiciled), frequency of drug/heavy alcohol use, drug/alcohol-user treatment history and childcare responsibilities on access to Medicaid and food stamp programs were tested. Multiple logistic regression analysis indicated that both literal homelessness and unstable housing were associated with less access to Medicaid and food stamps. Other significant findings were: current drug/alcohol-user treatment experience was associated with greater access to both Medicaid and food stamps, frequency of drug/heavy alcohol use was associated with less access to Medicaid only, and caring for children was associated with greater access to food stamps only. These findings support the crucial role of housing status in mediating access to entitlements, and the importance of drug/alcohol-user treatment involvement as a cue to seeking entitlements. The need to reduce health disparities through active and sustained outreach programs designed to enhance homeless persons' access to Medicaid and food stamp programs was discussed.

Nwakeze, P. C., S. Magura, et al. "Homelessness, substance misuse, and access to public entitlements in a soup kitchen population."
	The study examined the effects of homelessness on access to public entitlements (Medicaid and food stamp programs) in a soup kitchen population. Data were collected between 1997 and 1999 from a sample of 343 adults at two soup kitchen sites in New York City. Five hypotheses, focusing on the effects of housing status (literal homelessness, unstable housing, and domiciled), frequency of drug/heavy alcohol use, drug/alcohol-user treatment history and childcare responsibilities on access to Medicaid and food stamp programs were tested. Multiple logistic regression analysis indicated that both literal homelessness and unstable housing were associated with less access to Medicaid and food stamps. Other significant findings were: current drug/alcohol-user treatment experience was associated with greater access to both Medicaid and food stamps, frequency of drug/heavy alcohol use was associated with less access to Medicaid only, and caring for children was associated with greater access to food stamps only. These findings support the crucial role of housing status in mediating access to entitlements, and the importance of drug/alcohol-user treatment involvement as a cue to seeking entitlements. The need to reduce health disparities through active and sustained outreach programs designed to enhance homeless persons' access to Medicaid and food stamp programs was discussed.

Nye, R. (2005). "Locating masculinity: Some recent work on men." SIGNS 30(3): 1937-1962.
	
Nyqvist, K. H. and U. Ewald (1999). "Infant and maternal factors in the development of breastfeeding behaviour and breastfeeding outcome in preterm infants."  88(11): 1194-1203.
	A wide range in incidence of breastfeeding has been reported in preterm infants. The aim of this study was to explore the influence of infant and maternal factors on the development of preterm infants' breastfeeding behaviour and breastfeeding outcome. The sample consisted of 71 preterm infants born after a gestation of 26-35 wk. A descriptive, prospective design was used, with direct behavioural observation as data collection method, based on mothers' assessments according to the Preterm infant Breastfeeding Behavior Scale (PIBBS), in which higher scores indicate higher competence. Multiple regression analyses revealed that variables associated with efficient infant performance included higher birthweight, less need of ventilator and oxygen treatment, higher haemoglobin level, absence of bottle-feeding, no need of apnoea treatment with Theophylline, and no suspicion of infection. A short gestation was associated with high PIBBS scores during weeks 32-37. Maternal characteristics associated with higher infant competence were breastfeeding experience and low educational level. Fifty-seven infants were discharged with full breastfeeding and 10 infants with partial breastfeeding. Infants with a short gestation period achieved full breastfeeding at low postmenstrual and high postnatal age. Infants with Theophylline treatment, low haemoglobin level, and a longer period of separation from their mothers established full breastfeeding at higher postmenstrual and postnatal age. In conclusion, low gestational age at birth was associated with early emergence of efficient breastfeeding behaviour and a high incidence of full breastfeeding.

Oates, C. J. (1997). Rereading women's magazines : the feminist identity of Best, Bella and Take a Break, University of Sheffield.
	
Obrien, B. and S. Naber (1992). "Nausea and Vomiting During Pregnancy - Effects on the Quality of Womens Lives."  19(3): 138-143.
	More than 70 percent of all pregnant women experience nausea and vomiting during pregnancy, and 28 percent report that symptoms cause them to change their usual activities. We investigated the magnitude of problems that nausea and vomiting impose on the lifestyle of pregnant women and their families. Twenty-seven women who were experiencing different degrees of nausea and vomiting were selected from 147 pregnant women and asked to participate in semistructured telephone interviews. All participants reported changes in family, social, or occupational functioning as a result of these symptoms. Nausea and vomiting can impose substantial lifestyle limitations on pregnant women that can have short- and long-term consequences for them and their families. Both the duration and severity of symptoms were greater for many participants than is generally believed. All participants reported that recumbent rest or dietary alterations provided relief. Caregivers should recognize and validate the need for pregnant women to make changes in lifestyle that will enable them to achieve comfort.

O'Connor, P., A. Haynes, et al. (2004). "Relational Discourses - Social ties with family and friends." Childhood 11(3): 361-382.
	This article presents quantitative and qualitative
accounts of relational discourses in a random
sample of approximately 4100 texts written by Irish
young people (aged 10–12 and 14–17 years). The
existence of such discourses is indicated by
references to family and friends. The article shows
that although the majority refer to such ties in their
texts, less than one-third mention best friends. It
also shows that references to such relational
discourses were affected by age and gender. A
continuum of relatedness can be identified: with 10-
to 12-year-old girls at one end of the continuum and
14- to 17-year-old boys at the other end. The
implications of such trends are briefly discussed.

O'Donnell, M. and S. Sharpe (2000). Uncertain masculinities : youth, ethnicity and class in contemporary Britain. New York ; London, Routledge.
	
Office, H. (1998). Supporting Families. London:, HMSO.
	
Oftung, K. (2004). "Flexible fathers. Masculinity, work, welfare state." TIDSSKRIFT FOR SAMFUNNSFORSKNING 45(4): 694-697.
	
Ogle, J. P. and M. L. Damhorst (2003). "Mothers and daughters - Interpersonal approaches to body and dieting."  24(4): 448-487.
	The interpretive study reported in this article focused on the process by which mothers and daughters interact about body and dieting. In-depth interviews were conducted with 20 mothers and their adolescent daughters. Constant comparison analysis of data revealed four patterns of mother-daughter interaction about body and dieting: (a) the direct verbal approach. including encouragement/facilitation, dissuasion, and fault-finding messages; (b) the avoidance/guardedness approach; (c) the modeling approach; and (d) the laissez-faire approach. These four patterns of communication varied in terms of content and were used in different contexts and combinations. These mother-daughter interactions (a) were shaped by mothers' and daughters' thoughts about the self, the other, and the mother-daughter relationship; (b) were used by mothers and daughters to plan future interactions with one another; and (c) served to guide lines of personal action with respect to dieting, especially in the case of daughters.

O'Keefe, E. a. H., C. (1999). "'Public Participation and Citizenship and Marginalised Groups: The Community Development Model',." Health Expectations 2: 245-254.
	
Okon, D. M., A. L. Greene, et al. (2003). "Family interactions predict intraindividual symptom variation for adolescents with bulimia." International Journal of Eating Disorders 34(4): 450-457.
	Objective: Following family systems and stress theories, this study considered predictors of symptom variation experienced by adolescents with bulimia. Methods: Using experience sampling methodology, 20 girls clinically diagnosed with bulimia nervosa completed questionnaires about hassles and bulimic symptoms for 1 week, eight times daily, whenever they were contacted by pager. Perceived family environment was defined by the Family Environment Scale and the Conflict Behavior Questionnaire. Results: Regression analyses found that potent family hassles were positive predictors of bulimic symptoms later that day for girls who perceived their family as having high levels of conflict or low levels of emotional expressiveness. This was not found when girls perceived their family environment as more normal. Discussion: Within the context of a perceived dysfunctional family environment, potent family hassles can predict interindividual and intraindividual bulimic symptom variation for adolescent girls. (C) 2003 by Wiley Periodicals, Inc

Olin Lauritzen, S. (1997). "Notions of child health:mothers' accounts of health in their young babies." Sociology of Health and Illness 19(4): 436-456.
	
Olson, C. M., M. S. Strawderman, et al. (2003). "Gestational weight gain and postpartum behaviors associated with weight change from early pregnancy to 1y postpartum."  27(1): 117-127.
	OBJECTIVES: (1) To describe the relative importance of gestational weight gain, postpartum exercise, food intake and breastfeeding to weight change from early pregnancy to 1 y postpartum; and (2) to identify subgroups of women at greatest risk for major weight gain surrounding childbearing. Design: A prospective cohort study of women who registered for obstetrical care in a hospital and primary care clinic system serving a 10 county area of upstate New York. Subjects: A total of 540 healthy adult women who gave birth to full-term singleton infants. MEASUREMENTS: Sociodemographic characteristics, exercise, food-related behaviors and breastfeeding were assessed using the medical record and a mailed questionnaire. Body weight was measured at prenatal visits and 1 y postpartum. Weight retained and major weight gain (4.55 kg) at 1 y postpartum were the main outcomes. ANALYSIS: Linear and logistic regression analyses were conducted. RESULTS: Women were on average 1.51 5.95 kg heavier at 1 y postpartum than they were in early pregnancy. Nearly 25% of women experienced a major weight gain of 4.55 kg or more at I y postpartum. Gestational weight gain, exercise frequency, change in food intake and breastfeeding were each significantly related to postpartum weight retention. With the exception of breastfeeding, all of these factors were also associated with major weight gain. Women under 20 y or over 40 y at delivery and single women retained significantly more weight. Lower income women with gestational weight gains above the Institute of Medicine (IOM) range retained 3.73 kg more than lower income women who gained within the range. They were also 4.7 times more likely to experience major weight gain with childbearing. The impact of exceeding the IOM gestational weight gain guidelines was three times greater in lower income women than it was in higher income women. CONCLUSION: Gestational weight gain, postpartum exercise frequency, and food intake are significantly associated with weight change from early pregnancy to 1 y postpartum and major weight gain with childbearing. Lower income women who gain more weight in pregnancy than the IOM recommends are at high risk for major weight gain with childbearing.

Ophir, O. "[Homeless-disabled people--medical, moral and social problem]."
	Many factors contribute to homelessness, including extreme poverty, extended periods of unemployment, disruption of regular sources of income and employment, deinstitutionalization and substance abuse. As a result, the needs of the homeless are both broad and complex. This assessment is based on literature reviews and reviews of local documents and reports. For homeless people, healthcare competes with more immediate needs, such as obtaining adequate food and shelter and it is our duty as a society to help.

Ophir, O. "[Homeless-disabled people--medical, moral and social problem]."
	Many factors contribute to homelessness, including extreme poverty, extended periods of unemployment, disruption of regular sources of income and employment, deinstitutionalization and substance abuse. As a result, the needs of the homeless are both broad and complex. This assessment is based on literature reviews and reviews of local documents and reports. For homeless people, healthcare competes with more immediate needs, such as obtaining adequate food and shelter and it is our duty as a society to help.

Orwin, R. G., C. K. Scott, et al. "Transitions through homelessness and factors that predict them: three-year treatment outcomes."
	The course of homelessness was examined among adults entering treatment in the Chicago Target Cities sample, which was aimed at improving the service delivery system in large metropolitan areas across the U.S. The objectives of the present study were: (1) Examine transitions in and out of homelessness over 3 years post entry into treatment; and (2) Determine the treatment and non-treatment factors that predict achieving and sustaining residential stability. Sixty-one percent of initially homeless participants were stably housed at 36 months. By contrast, only 14% of initially housed participants were homeless at 36 months. Sample-wide, homelessness was reduced by 43% over 3 years. In conditional logistic regression models, the most consistent and persistent predictors were crack as the primary problem substance, which appears to be a risk factor for becoming and remaining homeless, and whether or not others were dependent on the participant for food/shelter, which appears to be a protective factor for achieving housing and preventing homelessness. In general, specific treatment factors did not predict outcomes. Limitations and implications for treatment are discussed.

Orwin, R. G., C. K. Scott, et al. "Transitions through homelessness and factors that predict them: three-year treatment outcomes."
	The course of homelessness was examined among adults entering treatment in the Chicago Target Cities sample, which was aimed at improving the service delivery system in large metropolitan areas across the U.S. The objectives of the present study were: (1) Examine transitions in and out of homelessness over 3 years post entry into treatment; and (2) Determine the treatment and non-treatment factors that predict achieving and sustaining residential stability. Sixty-one percent of initially homeless participants were stably housed at 36 months. By contrast, only 14% of initially housed participants were homeless at 36 months. Sample-wide, homelessness was reduced by 43% over 3 years. In conditional logistic regression models, the most consistent and persistent predictors were crack as the primary problem substance, which appears to be a risk factor for becoming and remaining homeless, and whether or not others were dependent on the participant for food/shelter, which appears to be a protective factor for achieving housing and preventing homelessness. In general, specific treatment factors did not predict outcomes. Limitations and implications for treatment are discussed.

Osis, M. J. D., G. A. Duarte, et al. (2004). "Exclusive breastfeeding among working women with free daycare available at workplace." Revista De Saude Publica 38(2): 172-179.
	
Ovid. "Metamorphoses Book 1." Internet Classics Archive, from http://classics.mit.edu/Ovid/metam.1.first.html.
	
Pac, S., K. McMahon, et al. (2004). "Development of the start healthy feeding guidelines for infants and toddlers." Journal of the American Dietetic Association 104(3): 455-467.
	
Pain, R., C. Bailey, et al. (2001). "Infant feeding in North East England: contested spaces of reproduction." Area 33(3): 261-272.
	
Palda, V. A., J. M. Guise, et al. (2004). "Interventions to promote breast-feeding: applying the evidence in clinical practice." Canadian Medical Association Journal 170(6): 976-978.
	
Palmer, G. (1998). The Politics of Breast Feeding. London, Pandora Press.
	
Palmer, S. and T. A. Glass (2003). "Family function and stroke recovery: A review." Rehabilitation Psychology 48(4): 255-265.
	Objective: Literature on family function in stroke rehabilitation is reviewed in 3 areas: the impact of family function on recovery from stroke, the impact of stroke on family function, and, psychosocial intervention in stroke. Study Design: Literature review. Results: Family function influences stroke rehabilitation. Family-based interventions are emerging but have not been proven effective. Health system changes have expanded the family's role in stroke care, increasing the need for psychosocial intervention research. Conclusions: Family function appears to influence stroke outcomes; a family-systems perspective promotes understanding of psychosocial outcomes in stroke; research has focused mainly on individual rather than family-systems models; tools to evaluate family process after stroke are inadequate; and more research is needed to develop and test optimal family intervention strategies

Paquette, M. (2005). "Perceptions of healthy eating: state of knowledge and research gaps." Canadian Journal of Public Health 9(47 ref): S15-S19.
	To effectively promote and support healthy eating among Canadians, there needs to be a better understanding of the factors that influence eating behaviours. Perceptions of healthy eating can be considered as one of the many factors influencing people's eating habits. For this review, "perceptions of healthy eating" are defined as the public's and health professionals' meanings, understandings, views, attitudes and beliefs about healthy eating, eating for health, and healthy foods. This article's aim is to review and summarize the literature on the perceptions of healthy eating and to identify the current state of knowledge and key knowledge gaps. Databases, the worldwide web, selected journals and reference lists were searched for relevant papers from the last 20 years. Reviewed articles suggest relative homogeneity in the perceptions of healthy eating despite the studies being conducted in different countries and involving different age groups, sexes and socio-economic status. Perceptions of healthy eating were generally based on food choice. Fruits and vegetables were consistently recognized as part of healthy eating. Characteristics of food such as naturalness, and fat, sugar and salt contents were also important in people's perceptions of healthy eating. Concepts related to healthy eating, such as balance, variety and moderation, were often mentioned, but they were found to be polysemous, conveying multiple meanings. The main gap identified in this review concerns the lack of knowledge available on perceptions of healthy eating. More data are needed on the perceptions of healthy eating in general, on the influence on perceptions of messages from diverse sources such as food companies, and, most important, on the role of perceptions of healthy eating as a determinant of food choice.

Parasecoli, F. (2005). "Feeding Hard Bodies: food and Masculinities in Men's Fitness Magazines." Food and Foodways 13: 17-37.
	
Park, R. J., A. Lee, et al. (2003). "Children's representation of family mealtime in the context of maternal eating disorders."  29(2): 111-119.
	Background Recent research provides evidence for specific disturbance in feeding and growth in children of mothers with eating disorders. Aim To investigate the impact of maternal eating disorders during the post-natal year on the internal world of children, as expressed in children's representations of self and their mother in pretend mealtime play at 5 years of age. Methods Children of mothers with eating disorders (n = 33) and a comparison group (n = 24) were videotaped enacting a family mealtime in pretend play. Specific classes of children's play representations were coded blind to group membership. Univariate analyses compared the groups on representations of mother and self. Logistic regression explored factors predicting pretend play representations. Results Positive representations of the mother expressed as feeding, eating or body shape themes were more frequent in the index group. There were no other significant group differences in representations. In a logistic regression analysis, current maternal eating psychopathology was the principal predictor of these positive maternal representations. Marital criticism was associated with negative representations of the mother. Conclusions These findings suggest that maternal eating disorders may influence the development of a child's internal world, such that they are more preoccupied with maternal eating concerns. However, more extensive research on larger samples is required to replicate these preliminary findings.

Parkinson, K. N., C. M. Wright, et al. (2004). "Mealtime energy intake and feeding behaviour in children who fail to thrive: a population-based case-control study." Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 45(5): 1030-1035.
	
Parmenter, K. and J. Wardle (1999). "Development of a general nutrition knowledge questionnaire for adults." European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 53(4): 298-308.
	OBJECTIVE: This paper describes the development of a reliable and valid questionnaire to provide a comprehensive measure of the nutritional knowledge of UK adults. The instrument will help to identify areas of weakness in people's understanding of healthy eating and will also provide useful data for examining the relationship between nutrition knowledge and dietary behaviour which, up until now, has been far from clear. DESIGN: Items were generated paying particular attention to content validity. The initial version of the questionnaire was piloted and assessed on psychometric criteria. Items which did not reach acceptable validity were excluded, and the final 50 item version was administered to two groups differing in nutritional expertise on two occasions to assess the construct validity and test-retest reliability. SETTING: The questionnaire was developed in 1994 in the UK. SUBJECTS: Three hundred and ninety-one members of the general public, recruited via their places of work, completed the questionnaire at the piloting stage. The final version was administered to 168 dietetics and computer science students following a university lecture. RESULTS: The internal consistency of each section was high (Cronbach's alpha = 0.70-0.97) and the test-retest reliability was also well above the minimum requirement of 0.7. Nutrition experts scored significantly better than computer experts [F(1167) = 200.5, P<0.001], suggesting good construct validity. CONCLUSIONS: The findings demonstrate that the instrument meets psychometric criteria for reliability and construct validity. It should provide a useful scale with which to reassess the relationship between knowledge and dietary behaviour.

Parmenter, K. and J. Wardle (1999). "Development of a general nutrition knowledge questionnaire for adults." Eur J Clin Nutr 53(4): 298-308.
	OBJECTIVE: This paper describes the development of a reliable and valid questionnaire to provide a comprehensive measure of the nutritional knowledge of UK adults. The instrument will help to identify areas of weakness in people's understanding of healthy eating and will also provide useful data for examining the relationship between nutrition knowledge and dietary behaviour which, up until now, has been far from clear. DESIGN: Items were generated paying particular attention to content validity. The initial version of the questionnaire was piloted and assessed on psychometric criteria. Items which did not reach acceptable validity were excluded, and the final 50 item version was administered to two groups differing in nutritional expertise on two occasions to assess the construct validity and test-retest reliability. SETTING: The questionnaire was developed in 1994 in the UK. SUBJECTS: Three hundred and ninety-one members of the general public, recruited via their places of work, completed the questionnaire at the piloting stage. The final version was administered to 168 dietetics and computer science students following a university lecture. RESULTS: The internal consistency of each section was high (Cronbach's alpha = 0.70-0.97) and the test-retest reliability was also well above the minimum requirement of 0.7. Nutrition experts scored significantly better than computer experts [F(1167) = 200.5, P&lt;0.001], suggesting good construct validity. CONCLUSIONS: The findings demonstrate that the instrument meets psychometric criteria for reliability and construct validity. It should provide a useful scale with which to reassess the relationship between knowledge and dietary behaviour.

Partington, S. and S. Nitzke (1998). "Indicators of Poorer Nutritional Status Associated with Homelessness in a Sample of Children Participating in the Special Supplemental Food Program for Women, Infants and Children in Wisconsin." Journal of the American Dietetic Association 98(9, Supplement 1): A59.
	Currently homeless, previously homeless and never homeless children were identified through screening at 15 Special Supplemental Food Program for Women, Infants and Children (WIC) sites in southeastern Wisconsin. Two hundred twenty one currently or previously homeless children were identified and age and sex matched to never homeless WIC participants. Height, weight, hemoglobin and socioeconomic and health history data were recorded from WIC records.The currently homeless were significantly shorter than the never homeless children. Regression analysis indicated that current homelessness, large family size and presence of chronic health problems were negatively associated with height for age. Higher birth weight, Hispanic ethnicity and prior WIC participation were positively associated with height for age. Currently homeless children under the age of 2 had significantly lower hemoglobin levels when compared with both never homeless and previously homeless children. In this study, homeless children exhibited poorer nutritional status than either their never homeless or previously homeless counterparts.

Pascale, C.-M. "There's No Place Like Home: The Discursive Creation of Homelessness."
	In this article, the author examines the cultural production of homelessness in the United States, with particular concern for the intimate connection between discursive practices & material conditions. Drawing from poststructural discourse analysis, the author traces the discursive development of homelessness & homeless people between 1982 & 1996 in The New York Times, The Washington Post, & Los Angeles Times. The author explores changes in discursive practices & demonstrates how these changes produce, transform, & stabilize public knowledge about people who cannot afford housing. In conjunction, the author deconstructs current discursive practices in newspapers & examines the relationship of these practices to local political responses to homelessness. The author then discusses how discursive practices regarding poverty create particular problems, deliberations, & interventions while precluding others. Finally, the author considers the implications of the findings for class politics & social change. 84 References. [Reprinted by permission of Sage Publications Inc., copyright 2005.].

Patel, P., J. Lee, et al. (2005). "Concerns about body shape and weight in the postpartum period and their relation to women's self-identification."  23(4): 347-364.
	The purpose of this qualitative study was to examine how three groups of women, with different levels of eating disorder psychopathology, perceived and coped with changes in eating and body shape and weight following pregnancy and the birth of a baby. Furthermore, we aimed to find out how such changes influenced their identity as mothers. Twenty-one mothers were selected from a large survey of women's eating habits and attitudes in the postnatal period: mothers with an eating disorder (n = 6), mothers who were at risk for eating disorder (n = 9) and a comparison group without such concerns (n = 6). They were interviewed in detail about their eating habits and attitudes to body shape and weight and a variety of related issues. Thematic analyses of the transcripts identified five themes: (i) loss of the pre-pregnancy self; (ii) life transitions; (iii) feeding relationship with infant; (iv) new relationship with family members; and ( v) role within wider society. Differences were identified between the groups. For example, mothers with eating disorders tended to perceive the external world as more negative and critical about their new maternal selves. Mothers in the comparison group seemed better able to 'prioritize' and tolerate their baby's dependency on their bodies, discussing breastfeeding in relation to infant needs rather than their own body needs. Comparison mothers were also more able to reflect on the implications of the changes in shape ( and loss of their former slim selves). The findings suggest that the postnatal period may be a vulnerable time for mothers with eating difficulties. Previous life transitions seemed to be relevant to this life-changing transition.

Paterakis, S. E. and M. Nelson (2003). "A comparison between the National Food Survey and the Family Expenditure Survey food expenditure data." Public Health Nutrition 6(6): 571-580.
	
Patrick, H. and T. A. Nicklas (X2005). "A review of family and social determinants of children's eating patterns and diet quality." Journal of the American College of Nutrition. 24(2): 83-92.
	With the growing problem of childhood obesity, recent research has begun to focus on family and social influences on children's eating patterns. Research has demonstrated that children's eating patterns are strongly influenced by characteristics of both the physical and social environment. With regard to the physical environment, children are more likely to eat foods that are available and easily accessible, and they tend to eat greater quantities when larger portions are provided. Additionally, characteristics of the social environment, including various socioeconomic and sociocultural factors such as parents' education, time constraints, and ethnicity influence the types of foods children eat. Mealtime structure is also an important factor related to children's eating patterns. Mealtime structure includes social and physical characteristics of mealtimes including whether families eat together, TV-viewing during meals, and the source of foods (e.g., restaurants, schools). Parents also play a direct role in children's eating patterns through their behaviors, attitudes, and feeding styles. Interventions aimed at improving children's nutrition need to address the variety of social and physical factors that influence children's eating patterns. [References: 139]

Patrick, H., T. A. Nicklas, et al. (2005). "The benefits of authoritative feeding style: caregiver feeding styles and children's food consumption patterns." Appetite 44(2): 243-249.
	This research tested the associations between caregiver feeding styles and children's food consumption patterns among African-American (AA) and Hispanic (H) caregivers and their preschool children. Participants were 231 caregivers (101 AA; 130 H) with children enrolled in Head Start. Caregivers completed questionnaires on authoritarian and authoritative feeding styles (Caregiver's Feeding Styles Questionnaire; CFSQ) and various aspects of children's food consumption patterns (availability of, feeding attempts for, and child's consumption of dairy, fruit, and vegetables). Simultaneous multiple regression analyses tested the unique contribution of feeding styles in predicting food consumption patterns. Authoritative feeding was positively associated whereas authoritarian feeding was negatively associated with the availability of fruit and vegetables. Authoritative feeding was also positively associated with attempts to get the child to eat dairy, fruit, and vegetables, and reported child consumption of dairy and vegetables. Authoritarian feeding was negatively associated with child's vegetable consumption. All results remained significant after controlling for child's gender and body mass index (BMI), and caregiver's ethnicity, BMI, and level of education. Overall, results provide evidence for the benefits of authoritative feeding and suggest that interventions to increase children's consumption of dairy, fruit, and vegetables should be targeted toward increasing caregivers' authoritative feeding behaviors. (c) 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Paulus, I. L. E. (1974). The search for pure food : a sociology of legislation in Britain. London, Robertson.
	
Pease, B. (2000). Recreating men : postmodern masculinity politics. London, SAGE.
	
Pennant, R. (2001). Embodied identities : geographies of food, exercise and racialised masculinities.
	
Perez-Escamilla, R., D. Himmelgreen, et al. (1998). "Prenatal and perinatal factors associated with breast-feeding initiation among inner-city Puerto Rican women."  98(6): 657-663.
	Objective To identify factors associated with the initiation of breast-feeding in a predominantly Puerto Rican population living in inner-city Hartford, Conn. Design Retrospective study of 144 Latino women (mean+/- standard deviation age=26.3+/-5.7 years) with children at least 1 year old but younger than 6 years old (mean+/-standard deviation age=3.0+/-1.2 years) at the time of the survey. Women were recruited from agencies sponsoring health programs for mothers and children. They were interviewed in their homes (69%) or at the Hispanic Health Council, Hartford, Conn (31%). Subjects/setting Low-income Latino women who had at least 1 preschooler at the time of the interview. The women lived in inner-city Hartford, and the overwhelming majority were Puerto Rican and received welfare assistance and food stamps. Seventy-eight percent of the women chose to be interviewed in Spanish; the other 22% were interviewed in English. Statistical analyses Explanatory variables that related to breast-feeding initiation (P less than or equal to.2) in bivariate chi(2) analyses were entered into a multivariate logistic regression model that was reduced using backward stepwise elimination procedures. Results Multivariate analyses indicated that breast-feeding the previous child, shorter length of maternal residence in the United States, not receiving prenatal bottle-feeding advice, more recent birth, and higher birth weight were positively associated with breast-feeding initiation. A major reason for choosing not to breast-feed was that women felt socially uncomfortable doing it. Applications Breast-feeding initiation was more likely in Latino women who received prenatal breast-feeding counseling and postpartum support. Mothers of low-birth-weight infants and women breast-feeding for the first time may need additional help. These findings can be used by programs like the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children to increase breast-feeding initiation.

Perkins, M. M., M. M. Ball, et al. (2004). "Managing the Care Needs of Low-Income Board-and-Care Home Residents: A Process of Negotiating Risks
10.1177/1049732303262619." Qual Health Res 14(4): 478-495.
	Small, low-income board-and-care homes play a critical role in the long-term care system, serving a variety of at-risk groups, including chronically mentally ill individuals, frail elders, and developmentally disabled adults. Unfortunately, the supply of homes available to serve these populations is decreasing. The purpose of this study, based on an in-depth ethnographic case study of one small (13-bed) African American-owned and -operated home in metropolitan Atlanta, was to understand how and why some homes continue to operate despite significant challenges. Grounded theory analysis showed that the survival of this home and residents' ability to remain in it involved a basic social process conceptualized as Negotiating Risks. This survival process often put participants at risk of losing their means of subsistence. Community support emerged as an important protective factor. Findings have implications for community interventions to increase these homes' survival and improve resident care.

Perry, H., J. W. G. Muita, et al. (1996). "Dietary habits, pregnancy weight gain and birthweights in a highland population of Kenya."  73(7): 424-426.
	In a prospective study of the effects of micro-nutrient supplementation during pregnancy in a cohort of healthy, non-anaemic antenatal outpatients of a small hospital in highland Kenya, research was also carried out on dietary habits, weight gain and birth-weights, Participants were enrolled at a mean gestation of 29 weeks (s.d.2.37), Special consideration was given to the dietary intake of the micronutrients most important to erythropoiesis, namely iron, folate and vitamin C (the main promotor of iron absorption), It was found that 74% consumed an inferior diet with regard to these micronutrients, The mean birth-weight of infants born to participants was 3178 grams (s.d. 398 grams). Only two variables were found to be significantly associated with birth-weight; mothers' weight gain on enrolment and mothers' weight gain during one month of the last trimester (p<0.05). It appears that the dietary intake during pregnancy in this population was lacking in important micronutrients, and it is recommended that antenatal clinics prioritise nutrition education during pregnancy.

Persinger, M. A. (2001). "Shifting gustatory thresholds and food cravings during pregnancy as expanding uterine-induced steady potential shifts within the insula: An hypothesis."  92(1): 50-52.
	A logical extrapolation from the principle that structure dictates function is that transient or anomalous experiences are consequences of simultaneous stimulations of proximal brain regions not typically co-activated. In this paper the occasional shifts in gustatory threshold during the menstrual cycle, the craving for unusual tastes experienced by some during pregnancies, and, the reports by postmenopausal women of the "burning mouth syndrome" are hypothesized to be artifacts of the proximity of gustatory and uterine representations within the female insula. Transient (menstrual) or tonic (pregnancy) stimulation within the uterus might shift the locus of neuronal activity within the insula to include adjacent gustatory neurons and consequently alter taste experiences. Specific tests of this hypothesis are-suggested.

Pesa, J. A. and M. M. Shelton (1999). "Health-enhancing behaviors correlated with breastfeeding among a national sample of mothers."  16(2): 120-124.
	Participation in health-enhancing behaviors not only influences the health of the mother, but of the newborn child as well. Characteristics of the mother, especially with regard to the practice of health-enhancing behaviors, have typically been excluded from studies examining breastfeeding. The purpose of this study was to identify health-enhancing behaviors correlated with breastfeeding among a national sample of mothers. The third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III) provided the sample for this study. All mothers between the ages of 17 and 45 (n = 578) with children aged 3 or younger at the time of the interview, who breastfed, were included. Seven health-enhancing behaviors served as the independent variables in a logistic regression analysis. Odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals were calculated from the estimated regression coefficients, and comparison of proportions were made using Pearson chi-square tests of homogeneity. Smoking less than 100 cigarettes in a lifetime, consuming five or more fruits and/or vegetables daily, and visiting a dentist annually were significantly associated with breastfeeding among the mothers in this sample. The results of this study point to a connection between the health-enhancing behaviors of the mother and breastfeeding. This information can be used to help professionals and practitioners gain a clearer picture of the breastfeeding mother. Multicomponent education programs targeted at new mothers can use this information to guide program development. Breastfeeding mothers may have better overall health as compared to mothers who do not breastfeed, therefore, they may serve as role models in peer-structured activities.

Petersen, A. R. (1998). Unmasking the masculine : 'men' and 'identity' in a sceptical age. London ; Thousand Oaks, Calif. ; London, Sage.
	
Pettersson, A., U. Olsson, et al. (2004). "Family life in grocery stores - a study of interaction between adults and children." International Journal of Consumer Studies 28(4): 317-328.
	
Pettersson, A., U. Olsson, et al. (2004). "Family life in grocery stores – a study of interaction between adults and children." International Journal of Consumer Studies 28(4): 317-328.
	"Today the family is seen as a unit for food choice and consumption. The influence of family members on food choice comprises several stages that can be carried out both in the private home and in the public sphere, such as the grocery store. This makes the grocery store a context in which ordinary family life can be observed. The aim was to study families and the interaction between children and adults in the grocery store, focusing on young people’s involvement in food shopping. Hidden observation and family interview methods were used. A total of 338 people were observed in seven different grocery stores in Stockholm during the summer and autumn of 2003. Seven family interviews, involving a total of 29 persons, were conducted in Uppsala in the spring of 2003. In the interviews, parents reported avoiding shopping for food together with children as they experienced it as stressful and exhausting. The observations showed that family life in the grocery store comprises not only the food purchase, but also bringing up children and consumer education. Young people’s involvement in the food purchase varied depending on their age and the specific product. The different behaviour observed may be interpreted as reflecting the variation in ways of bringing up children at home. Another conclusion is that a public place such the grocery store facilitates pedagogical situations and can work as a tool for informal education."

Phegley, J. (2000). "Clearing Away the Briars and Brambles : the Education and Professionalization of the Cornhill Magazine's Women Readers, 1860-65." Victorian Periodicals Review 33(1): 22-43.
	During the 1850's and 1860's family-oriented magazines in England serialized popular fiction. At the same time, critics interested in women's education expressed the need to establish a more pragmatic and nonfictional tone in these publications. The Cornhill Magazine responded to these calls by publishing a wide range of educational pieces not only for women but also for the entire English family. It also advocated extending formal education to all women.

Phegley, J. (2004). Educating the proper woman reader : Victorian family literary magazines and the cultural health of the nation. Columbus, Ohio State University Press.
	
Philip, K. L., K. Backett-Milburn, et al. (2003). "Practising what we preach? A practical approach to bringing research, policy and practice together in relation to children and health inequalities." Health Education Research 18(5): 568-579.
	This paper explores the need for better links between research and practice in relation to work with children and health inequalities. Despite continuing discussion about the need to improve dissemination of research activity in general, study of this area remains largely neglected. As a result, despite the rhetoric, the research and practice gap continues to exist. An attempt to remedy this was undertaken through the support of a user fellowship as part of the UK Economic and Social Research Council Health Variations Programme. The paper describes a number of activities that were undertaken during the fellowship, and discusses the implications of these for improving connections and minimizing the research and practice 'gap'. It argues that a need exists for researchers to develop innovative dissemination strategies and suggests that potential exists for an interactive model of dissemination. Such a model implies a more active role for users of research in the shaping of research agendas.

Philipp, B. L. and A. Radford (2006). "Baby-Friendly: snappy slogan or standard of care?"  91(2): F145-F149.
	Breastfeeding offers significant protection against illness for the infant and numerous health benefits for the mother, including a decreased risk of breast cancer. In 1991, UNICEF and WHO launched the Baby-Friendly Hospital Initiative with the aim of increasing rates of breastfeeding. '' Baby-Friendly '' is a designation a maternity site can receive by demonstrating to external assessors compliance with the Ten Steps to Successful Breastfeeding. The Ten Steps are a series of best practice standards describing a pattern of care where commonly found practices harmful to breastfeeding are replaced with evidence based practices proven to increase breastfeeding outcome. Currently, approximately 19250 hospitals worldwide have achieved Baby-Friendly status, less than 500 of which are found in industrialised nations. The Baby-Friendly initiative has increased breastfeeding rates, reduced complications, and improved mothers' health care experiences.

Pisacane, A. and P. Continisio (2004). "Breastfeeding and perceived changes in the appearance of the breasts: a retrospective study."  93(10): 1346-1348.
	Aim: To investigate the association between breastfeeding and the perception that women have of changes in the appearance of their breasts. Methods: Four hundred and ninety-six Italian women were interviewed in three health centres 18 mo (SD 3.4 mo, range 12.6-23.1 mo) after the birth of their first baby in May 2002. Information was collected on pregnancy, infant feeding and bra cup size before pregnancy. The main outcome measures were self-reported changes in the appearance of the breasts (enlargement or reduction in breast size and loss of firmness) and bra cup size at the time of the interview. Results: Seventy-three percent of the mothers reported that their breasts were different compared with before pregnancy; enlargement and loss of firmness representing the most common changes. The prevalence of changes among the mothers who had and had not breastfed was 75% and 69%, respectively (relative risk: 1.09, 95% Cl: 0.96-1.23). Bra cup size before pregnancy was neither associated with the frequency of breastfeeding nor with the occurrence of changes in the appearance of the breasts. Conclusions: In Italy, mothers frequently report that the size and the shape of their breasts have changed after childbirth, but these changes do not seem to be associated with breastfeeding.

Pliner P, P. M. (1986). "Similarities in food preferences between children and their siblings and parents." Appetite 7(4): 333-342.
	Fifty-five Canadian women completed questionnaires about the food likes and dislikes of members of their families. Each family consisted of a mother, a father, a "target" child (24-83 months old) and the child's nearest-age sibling. The likes and dislikes of the target children were cross-tabulated with those of their mothers, fathers, and siblings, and phi-statistics were computed for the child-mother, child-father and child-sibling pairs as measures of similarity in food preferences. The results revealed that the target children resembled all three members of their families in their food preferences and that this resemblance was especially pronounced in the case of siblings.

Pobocik, R. S., J. C. Benavente, et al. (2000). "Effect of a breastfeeding education and support program on breastfeeding initiation and duration in a culturally diverse group of adolescents."  32(3): 139-145.
	The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of the Early Experiences and Counseling for Effective Lactation (EXCEL) program on breastfeeding initiation and duration among adolescents on Guam. There were 244 intervention and 163 comparison subjects. Intervention mothers had higher (p < .01) rates of breastfeeding initiation (77.9%), were approximately twice as likely to initiate breastfeeding (p < .05), and more (p < .05) were breastfeeding at 2 months than comparison mothers. For each additional lesson attended, the odds for breastfeeding initiation increased by 1.098. EXCEL is a culturally sensitive intervention based on social learning theory.

Polegrato, R. Z., JL (1994). "Family Food Shopping - Strategies Used by Husbands and Wives." Journal of Consumer Affairs 28(2): 278-299.
	
Pollitt, C. (1993). Managerialism and the Public Sector. Oxford:, Basil Blackwell.
	
Pomerleau, C. S., R. J. N. Brouwer, et al. (2000). "Weight concerns in women smokers during pregnancy and postpartum."  25(5): 759-767.
	When women smokers become pregnant, they are asked to control weight gain and at the same time to relinquish an addictive drug with weight suppressing effects. For women with serious body image concerns or a history of unhealthful eating patterns, smoking cessation may be particularly problematic. To investigate the relationship of weight concerns with smoking and weight gain during pregnancy and postpartum weight loss strategies, we conducted a retrospective study of women who had given birth to their first child within the past 10 pears and were smokers when they became pregnant. We observed that women smokers with high weight and body image concerns (HC) gained significantly more weight during pregnancy-in amounts that far exceeded maximum recommended weight gain-than did women with low concerns (LC). HC were more likely to adopt smoking as a weight-control strategy and to be receptive to multiple weight-control strategies. Although they lost significantly more weight in the first month postpartum than did LC, they had also gained significantly more during pregnancy; the net result was that weight loss as a percentage of weight gained did not differ significantly between groups. HC were significantly less likely to experience food cravings in the first trimester and marginally less likely to vomit than LC. We conclude that early identification of high-risk women, coordination of prenatal care with smoking cessation counseling, and development of effective relapse prevention strategies that specifically address weight issues both during and after pregnancy will be needed if efforts to reduce smoking during pregnancy and postpartum are to be optimized. (C) 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd.

Poole, L. ((2000)). Health Care: New Labour's NHS, in. New Managerialism. New Welfare. S. G. E. M. E. J. Clarke. London:, Sage.
	
Popkin, B. M., K. Duffey, et al. (2005). "Environmental influences on food choice, physical activity and energy balance." Physiology and Behaviour 86: 603-613.
	
Potoczniak, M. J., J. E. Mourot, et al. (2003). "Legal and psychological perspectives on same-sex domestic violence: A multisystemic approach." Journal of Family Psychology 17(2): 252-259.
	This article presents the legal and psychological aspects of same-sex domestic violence (SSDV) in a multisystemic model that encompasses family systems, friends and the gay-lesbian- bisexual communities, legal systems, and mental and physical health systems, encouraging family psychologists to be the leaders of reform. The current status of relevant laws is integrated into the literature on SSDV, which includes prevalence, myths regarding SSDV, help-seeking behavior of victims, and similarities and differences between SSDV and opposite-sex domestic violence. Recommendations for change in all of the overlapping systems and in the public policies of the larger society are included

Pozo, J. M. (2004). "A response to: 'Infant feeding attitudes of expectant parents: breastfeeding and formula feeding' by I. Shaker, J. A. Scott and M. Reid (2004) Journal of Advanced Nursing 45 (3), 260-268, from Janel Pozo." Journal of Advanced Nursing 47(3): 340-341.
	
Pratt, J., Gordon, P. and Plamping, D. ((1999)). Working Whole Systems: Putting Theory into Practice in Organisations. London, King's Fund.
	
Pridham, K. F., M. Schroeder, et al. (2001). "The relationship of a mother's working model of feeding to her feeding behaviour."  35(5): 741-750.
	Aims of the study. This study aimed to examine the difference the attunement of a mother's working model of feeding to her infant makes for her positive feeding affect and behaviour, accounting for infant and mother conditions. Background/rationale. The concept of a mother's working model of feeding is derived from attachment theory. Caregiving, including feeding, is a component of this theory. The conditions that may influence the attunement of a mother's working model of feeding to her infant include infant birth maturity status (premature, fullterm), age at assessment, and robustness, indexed by weight-for-age z score (WAZ). Mother conditions include symptoms of depression and feeding practice (breast feeding or exclusive bottle feeding). Design/methods. Participants in this longitudinal study were 99 mothers and their infants (47 full-term, 52 premature, very low birth weight). After written informed consent was given, home assessments were made when infants were approximately 1, 4, 8 and 12 months old (adjusted age for premature infants). Working model attunement was assessed with a video-assisted interview. A mother's positive affect and behaviour, including sensitivity and responsiveness, were rated from videotaped feeding interaction. Results/findings. Repeated measures analysis with a general linear mixed model showed a significant positive relationship with positive affect and behaviour for both working model attunement and the WAZ score and a significant negative relationship for symptoms of depression. Neither birth maturity status, infant age, nor feeding practice had a significant effect on mother's positive affect and behaviour during feeding. Conclusions. Nurses' efforts to enhance the attunement of a mother's working model of feeding may help mothers feed with greater positive affect and behaviour. Further study of how the attunement of a mother's feeding expectations and intentions are related to her symptoms of depression and with what she makes of the infant's growth and well-being is needed. The theoretical model needs testing with infants from the entire premature Population.

Pringle, K. (1995). Men, masculinities and social welfare. London, UCL Press.
	
Prochaska, F. (1989). "A Mother's Country: Mothers' Meetings and Family Welfare in Britain, 1850-1950." History 74(242): 379-399.
	Mothers' meetings, sometimes called mothers' classes or maternal associations, were established by various religious and charitable groups in rural areas and city slums throughout Great Britain in the mid-Victorian years. Led by middle-class women with a sense of social responsibility, they were a peculiarly female response to the problems and opportunities associated with economic and religious change. The meetings provided a form of discount fabric shopping in a convivial religious atmosphere, an opportunity to escape from domestic drudgery and a chance to sew while listening to a reading or picking up tips on child care, cooking, sanitation, or political issues. Although some survived until mid-century, mother's meetings deteriorated after 1900 with the decline in religious faith, the drop in the birth rate, opportunities for employment outside the home, and the creation of the welfare state.

Procida, M. (2003). "Feeding the Imperial Appetite: Imperial Knowledge and Anglo-Indian Domesticity." Journal of Women's History 15(2): 123-149.
	Examines cookbooks and household management guides written specifically for British women in India during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. These texts were aimed at the lower classes in Anglo-Indian society, the wives of British soldiers, and constructed a new approach to imperial domesticity. These women, who may have been servants themselves in England, often oversaw two or three servants in India. Cooking was almost always the responsibility of the servants, reflecting a distanced approach to housekeeping. British women were advised to check on their servants' activities only once per day, enabling them to devote their attentions to learning about the local environment and their place in the empire.

Putnam, R. D. (1995). "Bowling Alone: America's declining social capital,." Journal of Democracy 6(65-78).
	
Pyke, K. (2005). ""Generational Deserters" and "Black Sheep". Acculturative Differences Among Siblings in Asian Immigrant Families,." Journal of Family Issues 26(4): 491-517.
	
Qumachigui, A. (2002). "Prepregnancy and pregnancy nutrition and its impact on women's health."  60(5): S64-S67.
	The overall nutrition status of females remains deficient. Among female school children 13-18 years of age, calorie consumption ranged from 65-90% of the RDA (Recommended Dietary Allowance), protein consumption from 60-71% of RDA, and vitamin A intake was 50% of RDA. Prevalence of anemia ranged from 72-98% and that of intestinal parasitic infection ranged from 17-62%. Gender bias may adversely affect the nutrition of the female child. An adolescent is likely to begin pregnancy with a negative nutrition balance. In a multicentric study, 93,356 married women, aged 15-45 years, were interviewed at home in a community-based survey from 23 districts in India. Forty to eighty percent were married before 18 years of age, and the incidence of teenage pregnancy was 66%. The magnitude of the problem and the adverse effects malnutrition may have in later life requires well-designed studies in order to find solutions. (C) 2002 International Life Sciences Institute.

Raikkonen, K., A. K. Pesonen, et al. (2004). "Sweet babies: chocolate consumption during pregnancy and infant temperament at six months."  76(2): 139-145.
	Background: Chocolate contains several biologically active components potentially having behavioral and psychological consequences. Aims: We tested whether chocolate consumption and stress experiences during pregnancy predict mother-rated infant temperament at 6 months. Design and subjects: Prenatal frequency of chocolate consumption and intensity of psychological stress experience of the mothers, and temperament characteristics of the infants 6 months postpartum were evaluated in 305 consecutive, healthy mother-infant dyads. Results: Mothers who reported daily consumption of chocolate rated more positively the temperament of their infants at 6 months. Maternal prenatal stress predicted more negatively tuned ratings of the infant temperament, particularly among those who reported never/seldom chocolate consumption. However, this effect was not observed among the mothers reporting weekly or daily chocolate consumption. Conclusions: In addition to producing subjective feelings of psychological well being, chocolate may have effects at multiple environmental and psychological levels. (C) 2003 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

Raine, P. (2003). "Promoting breast-feeding in a deprived area: the influence of a peer support initiative." Health & Social Care in the Community 11(6): 463-469.
	
Raisler, J. (2000). "Against the odds: Breastfeeding experiences of low income mothers."  45(3): 253-263.
	This qualitative study asked low income mothers about their experiences of breastfeeding care in the health system and about integrating breastfeeding into their daily lives. Focus group interviews were conducted with urban and rural nursing mothers who participated in the WIC Program and were supported by breastfeeding peer counselors. Mothers said that helpful breastfeeding care providers knew correct information, established supportive personal relationships, referred women to breastfeeding specialists for problems, showed enthusiasm for nursing, and facilitated breastfeeding through concrete actions during the prenatal, intrapartum, and postpartum periods. Unhelpful providers missed opportunities to discuss breastfeeding, gave misinformation, encouraged formula supplementation, provided perfunctory or routine breastfeeding care, and were hard to contact when problems arose. Women valued their breastfeeding peer counselors for responding promptly to distress calls, making home visits, being knowledgeable about breastfeeding, providing hands-on assistance, and acting personal and caring. Incorporatings breastfeeding into daily activities was a challenge for many mothers. Ambivalence about the physical bond of nursing, personal modesty, and getting on with life at home, work, or school were identified as important issues. Listening to the thoughts and experiences of low income nursing mothers can help health workers to provide more culturally sensitive, effective breastfeeding care to this population. (C) 2000 by the American College of Nurse-Midwives.

Rake, J. P., G. Visser, et al. (2002). "Glycogen storage disease type I: diagnosis, management, clinical course and outcome. Results of the European Study on Glycogen Storage Disease Type I (ESGSD I)."  161: S20-S34.
	Glycogen storage disease type I (GSD I) is a relatively rare metabolic disease and therefore, no metabolic centre has experience of large numbers of patients. To document outcome, to develop guidelines about (long-term) management and follow-up, and to develop therapeutic strategies, the collaborative European Study on GSD I (ESGSD I) was initiated. This paper is an descriptive analysis of data obtained from the retrospective part of the ESGSD I. Included were 231 GSD la and 57 GSD Ib patients. Median age of data collection was 10.4 years (range 0.4-45.4 years) for la and 7.1 years (0.4-30.6 years) for Ib patients. Data on dietary treatment, pharmacological treatment, and outcome including mental development, hyperlipidaemia and its complications, hyperuricaemia and its complications, bleeding tendency, anaemia, osteopenia, hepatomegaly, liver adenomas and carcinomas, progressive renal disease, height and adult height, pubertal development and bone maturation, school type, employment, and pregnancies are presented. Data on neutropenia, neutrophil dysfunction, infections, inflammatory bowel disease, and the use of granulocyte colony-stimulating factor are presented elsewhere (Visser et al. 2000, J Pediatr 137:187-191; Visser et al. 2002, Eur J Pediatr DOI 10.1007/s00431-002-1010-0). Conclusion: there is still wide variation in methods of dietary and pharmacological treatment of glycogen storage disease type I. Intensive dietary treatment will improve, but not correct completely, clinical and biochemical status and fewer patients will die as a direct consequence of acute metabolic derangement. With ageing, more and more complications will develop of which progressive renal disease and the complications related to liver adenomas are likely to be two major causes of morbidity and mortality.

Ramakrishnan, U. and R. Yip (2002). "Experiences and challenges in industrialized countries: Control of iron deficiency in industrialized countries."  132(4): 820S-824S.
	This paper provides a synopsis of the experience in combating iron deficiency in industrialized countries and identifies the reasons for the considerable success and future challenges. Significant progress has been made over the last century in reducing and even eliminating iron deficiency in many industrialized countries. Current estimates are that the prevalence of iron deficiency has declined to <20% in many of these countries, even among women and young children, compared with 30 to 70% in many developing countries. The reasons for this success cannot be attributed solely to a single approach but rather to a range of factors that have occurred over time as a result of both economic development and the implementation of specific policies. Several factors have contributed to improving both iron intakes and reducing iron losses; these include fortification, supplementation, dietary diversification and public health measures. For example, the decline in anemia in infants can be attributed to the introduction of iron-fortified formula and complementary foods in the 1960s to 1970s. Similarly, the enrichment and fortification of cereals with iron that began during World War II in North America and Europe is a result of effective public-private partnerships. Despite these successes, iron deficiency remains a public health concern in industrialized countries for selected subgroups such as women of reproductive age with excess menstrual losses and pregnant women who cannot meet increased requirements from the diet alone. Constant vigilance and innovative approaches for screening and combating this problem are thus still required even in developed countries.

Rampersaud, G. C., M. A. Pereira, et al. (2005). "Breakfast habits, nutritional status, body weight, and academic performance in children and adolescents." Journal of the American Dietetic Association 105: 743-760.
	
Rassin, D. K., K. S. Markides, et al. (1994). "Acculturation and the Initiation of Breast-Feeding."  47(7): 739-746.
	Despite the fact that breastfeeding is the most appropriate form of nutrition for the healthy term infant, the rate of initiation in the U.S. is declining. One demographic factor associated with this low rate is ethnicity and so in this study we measured acculturation (one aspect of ethnicity) into the U.S. and its relationship to the successful initiation of breastfeeding in a sample of women recruited approximately 2 months prenatally in a U.S.-Mexico border city. Interviews were administered in English or Spanish by bilingual interviewers prenatally (n = 906), natally (n = 788), and postnatally (n = 715). Acculturation (measured with a 20 item instrument) was strongly related to the intent to (p <0.001) or the successful initiation of breastfeeding (p < 0.001). Marital status (p = 0.014) and education (p = 0.002) were related to breastfeeding prenatally and natally. Initiation of breastfeeding was highest among those women least acculturated (52.9%) and lowest in those most acculturated (36.1%) indicating an inhibiting effect of acculturation. To improve the rate of initiation of breastfeeding in the U.S. (a national health goal) intervention programs must consider cultural factors.

Raulio, S., E. Roos, et al. (2005). "Twenty-year trends of workplace lunches in Finland." Food Service Technology 5(2-4): 57-66.
	
Raven, S. (2006). Gardeners' World Special. Gardeners' World. UK, BBC2.
	
Rea, M. F., S. I. Venancio, et al. (1997). "Possibilities and limitations of breast-feeding among women in formal employment."  31(2): 149-156.
	Introduction Studies carried out on breastfeeding and working women are difficult to compare. Breastfeeding practices among formally employed women in Brazil have not been much studied, despite important changes in public policies such as the extension of maternity leave to 120 days. Objectives Conclusion A description of breastfeeding patterns among women employed in factories and the constraints and opportunities involved in conciliating breastfeeding and work. Material and Method An exploratory study was carried out in 13 factories in S. Paulo city in 1994, where all women in the 3rd trimester of pregnancy were interviewed (76), and re-interviewed (69) when they,vent back to work (around 5,4 months after delivery;). Results Breastfeeding initiation was found in 97% of women and the median duration was 150 days. The exclusive breastfeeding and predominant breastfeeding rates were, respectively, 10 and 70 days of median duration. Higher socio-economic status and nursery facilities and the existence of a place in which to extract and score The mother's milk at the,workplace were factors associated with longer duration of breastfeeding. Other factors such as flex-time and work out of the production-line also showed a significant relation to longer duration of breastfeeding in the factories studied Conclusion Maternity leave is widely taken advantage of and highly benefitial for the majority of working,women as regards breastfeeding, but other factors are important in maintaining lactation, such as circunstances which permit closer mother-child contact and/or the extraction of human milk during the working day.

Read, J. ((2000)). Disability, the Family and Society. Listening to Mothers. Buckingham:, Open University Press.
	
Reich, G. (2005). "Family relationships and family therapy of eating disorders."  54(4): 318-336.
	A multitude of empirical studies clearly demonstrates that the origin and course of eating disorders is closely linked to family factors. The influence is exerted in a direct way by conveying attitudes towards food, eating, weight, shape and appearance within the family and in a more indirect way by the family relationships. Families of bulimics differ from those of anorexics by a higher degree of conflict, impulsivity, expressiveness and by lower affective resonance and cohesion. Family therapy has proven to be effective in the treatment of eating disorders. A sketch of a family therapy describes the conflict oriented approach which includes behavioral elements in oder to stabilize the eating behavior and the weight.

Reid, A. (2002). "Infant feeding and post-neonatal mortality in Derbyshire, England, in the early twentieth century." Population Studies-a Journal of Demography 56(2): 151-166.
	
Reilly, J. J., J. Armstrong, et al. (2005). "Early life risk factors for obesity in childhood: cohort study." British Medical Journal 330(7504): 1357-1359.
	
Rempel, L. A. and G. T. Fong (2005). "Why Breastfeed? A longitudinal test of the reasons model among first-time mothers."  20(4): 443-466.
	
Rempel, L. A. and J. K. Rempel (2004). "Partner influence on health behavior decision-making: increasing breastfeeding duration." Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 21(1): 92-111.
	This longitudinal study examined how male partners affect the breastfeeding decisions and behavior of first-time mothers. Based on the reasons model by Meichenbaum and Fong (1993), the breastfeeding reasons, intentions, and behavior of 317 first-time mothers were assessed prenatally and at six time points in the first year postpartum. In a prenatal assessment, men indicated their prescriptive beliefs about whether their partner should breastfeed at the same six time points. Men's prescriptive breastfeeding beliefs predicted the strength of their partners' breastfeeding intentions, over and above the women's own breastfeeding reasons, and they predicted breastfeeding behavior over and above the women's intentions. These results demonstrate the influence wielded by intimate partners and highlight the importance of focusing on partners' beliefs when predicting and intervening in health behavior decisions. (Original abstract)

Reyes, H., R. Perez-Cuevas, et al. (2004). "The family as a determinant of stunting in children living in conditions of extreme poverty: a case-control study." Bmc Public Health 4.
	
Rhodes, P. (2003). "Behavioural and family systems interventions in developmental disability: towards a contemporary and integrative approach." Journal of Intellectual & Developmental Disability 28(1): 51-64.
	While behavioural intervention is effective in the treatment of challenging behaviour, in developmental disability it can have significant limitations in the family setting. Families can sometimes find it difficult to make lifecycle transitions or respond to other stressful life events and become stuck in patterns of interaction that include the presenting behaviour. The aim of this paper is to present a theoretical and working model of intervention that integrates more contemporary behavioural and systemic orientations. Four stages for intervention are provided, each consisting of practical guidelines for the clinician. Three detailed case studies are also included

Richardson, L. and E. A. S. Pierre (2005). Writing: A Method of Inquiry. The Sage Handbook of Qualitative Research. N. K. Denzin and Y. S. Lincoln. California; London; New Dehli, Sage.
	
Ricke, L. A., N. J. Baker, et al. (2005). "Newborn tongue-tie: Prevalence and effect on breast-feeding."  18(1): 1-7.
	Objective: The purposes of this study were: (1) to determine whether breast-fed infants with tongue-tie have decreased rates of breast-feeding at 1 week and 1 month of age, (2) to determine the prevalence of tongue-tie, and (3) to test the usefulness of the Assessment Tool for Lingual Frenulum Function (ATLFF) in assessing the severity of tongue-tie in breast-feeding newborns. Methods: A case-control design was used. All infants in the Regions Hospital newborn nursery were examined for tongue-tie. Tongue-tied babies were examined using the ATLFF. Two breast-feeding babies with normal tongues were identified and matched for each case. Mothers were interviewed when the babies were 1 week and 1 month old. Results: The prevalence of tongue-tie was 4.2%. Forty-nine tongue-tied and 98 control infants were enrolled. Tongue-tied babies were 3 times as likely as control babies to be bottle fed only at 1 week [risk ratio (RR), 3.11; 95% confidence interval (CI), 1.21, 8.03) By 1 month, tongue-tied babies were as likely as controls to be bottle fed only. (RR, 1.00; 95% CI, 0.55, 1.82) Twelve of the tongue-tied infants had ATLFF scores of "Perfect," none had scores of " Acceptable," and 6 had scores of " Function Impaired." The remaining 31 infants had scores that fell into none of these categories. Conclusions: Tongue-tie is a relatively common condition in newborns. Affected infants are significantly more likely to be exclusively bottle-fed by 1 week of age. The ATLFF was not a useful tool to identify which tongue-tied infants are at risk for breast-feeding problems.

Riley, M. (1997). "Teaching French in a School for Children with Moderate Learning Difficulties." British Journal of Special Education 24(2`): 66-70.
	
Ristovski-Slijepcevic, S. and G. E. Chapman (2005). "Integration and individuality in healthy eating: meanings, values, and approaches of childless, dual earner couples." Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics 18(4): 301-309.
	Abstract: Introduction and objectives Although considered to be an important component of food choice, perceptions and practices regarding healthy eating vary between people and change over the life-course. The purpose of this paper is to examine integration and individuality in healthy eating meanings, values, and approaches of individuals in childless, dual earner couples. 
Materials and methods Fourteen participants (from seven couples) were recruited using notices and snowball sampling. Food journals and individual interviews were used to explore the nature of and negotiations between partners' healthy eating values and approaches. Data were analysed through iterative procedures that included coding, thematic analysis and memo writing.

Results Participants presented individual healthy eating values and approaches based on their own experiences with food over time. Cohabitation resulted in a continuum of healthy eating negotiation outcomes, including congruent values and approaches, congruent values but divergent approaches, and divergent values and approaches. In combination with other salient factors, cohabitation provides an opportunity for improving healthy eating approaches.

Discussion Cohabitation has the potential to lead to positive changes in healthy eating approaches. Practitioners need to tailor messages for clients' specific needs and encourage change in the direction of the partner with the healthier eating approach.

Ritchie, L. D., G. Welk, et al. (2005). "Family environment and pediatric overweight: what is a parent to do?" Journal of the American Dietetic Association 105: S70-S79.
	
Ritzer, G. (2001). Explorations in the sociology of consumption : fast food, credit cards and casinos. London, Sage.
	
Robb, G. (2004). "The three-piece suit and modern masculinity: England, 1550-1850." JOURNAL OF MODERN HISTORY 76(4): 947-948.
	
Robb, M. (2001). The Changing Experience of Childhood. Children in Society - Contemporary Theory, Policy and Practice. P. Foley, J. Roche and S. Tucker. Basingstoke, Palgrave: 18-25.
	
Robinson, L. M., L. McIntyre, et al. (2005). "Welfare babies: poor children's experiences informing healthy peer relationships in Canada."  20(4): 342-350.
	Positive peer relationships among children living in poverty are important for their well-being, resiliency and mental and physical health. This paper explicates the 'felt experience' of children living in poverty, and the implications of these experiences for healthy peer relationships, from a re-analysis of two qualitative research studies in Canada examining children living in food insecure circumstances. Poor children feel deprived, part of the 'poor group', embarrassed, hurt, picked on, inadequate and responsible. Poor children internalize their own lack of social resources in feelings of deprivation. They experience negative feelings relative to their peers-inadequacy, embarrassment and hurt. Children do identify group membership but it is not used as a social resource, as it could be, but rather as a symbol of social segregation. Children also feel responsible for ameliorating some of the effects of their poverty and this seems to strengthen their relationship with their mothers. This could equally be translated into peer-related support, such as standing up to poor bashing, or engaging constructively with higher social class peers. Health promotion strategies that seek to foster positive peer relationships and enhance children's sense of belonging should offer novel social environments in which poor children can engage a variety of peers.

Robinson, S. (2000). "Children's perceptions of who controls their food." Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics 13(3): 163-171.
	
Robinson, S. (2000). "Children's perceptions of who controls their food." Journal of Human Nutrition & Dietetics 13: 163-171.
	Background 
The purpose of this study was to explore children's perceptions of who controlled the quality and quantity of their food during the week.
Methods 
Semi structured interviews were carried out with 98 9-yearold children. The children were asked to describe who chose what they ate during a typical week day. They were also asked about who decided how much they ate.
Results 
The children thought that adults had a high degree of control over their food. They frequently reported that either they were allowed to choose from a selection provided by an adult, or that an adult chose their food without consultation. Many children reported that adults were very influential in determining how much food they ate.
Conclusions 
Although the children thought that adults imposed control upon their food choices, it is argued that children have more choice about their food than at any time in history. The children's perceptions highlight the need for planned dietary change to acknowledge the various influences which can affect choices of children's food.

Robinson, S. (2000). "Children's perceptions of who controls their food." J Hum Nutr Diet 13(3): 163-171.
	BACKGROUND: The purpose of this study was to explore children's perceptions of who controlled the quality and quantity of their food during the week. METHODS: Semi structured interviews were carried out with 98 9-year-old children. The children were asked to describe who chose what they ate during a typical week day. They were also asked about who decided how much they ate. RESULTS: The children thought that adults had a high degree of control over their food. They frequently reported that either they were allowed to choose from a selection provided by an adult, or that an adult chose their food without consultation. Many children reported that adults were very influential in determining how much food they ate. CONCLUSIONS: Although the children thought that adults imposed control upon their food choices, it is argued that children have more choice about their food than at any time in history. The children's perceptions highlight the need for planned dietary change to acknowledge the various influences which can affect choices of children's food.

Robinson, S. C. (1996). "Amazed at Our Success : the Langham Place Editors and the Emergence of a Feminist Critical Tradition." Victorian Periodicals Review 29(2): 159-172.
	Reviews the history of three pioneering English women's magazines published between 1858 and 1910 by the Langham Place Circle, a reform organization made up mostly of women and led by Barbara Leigh Smith Bodichon (1827-91) and Bessie Rayner Parkes (1829-1925). The publications were the English Woman's Journal (1858-64), Victoria Magazine (1863-80), and Englishwoman's Review (1866-1910). The author explores how these publications promoted women's rights and founded, in their review pages, feminist literary criticism.

Robinson, S. M., S. R. Crozier, et al. (2004). "Impact of educational attainment on the quality of young women's diets."  58(8): 1174-1180.
	Objective: New findings, that relate poor foetal growth to long-term outcomes, highlight the need to understand more about the nature of women's diets before and during pregnancy. This study examines the influence of sociodemographic and anthropometric factors on the quality of the diets of young women in the UK. Design: Diet was assessed by an interviewer-administered food frequency questionnaire. A single diet score was calculated for each woman using the first component defined by principal components analysis. Setting: Southampton, UK. Subjects: A total of 6125 non pregnant women aged 20-34 y. Results: The diets of women with low diet scores were characterised by low intakes of fruit and vegetables, wholemeal bread, rice and pasta, yogurt, and breakfast cereals, but high intakes of chips and roast potatoes, sugar, white bread, red, and processed meat and full-fat dairy products. Educational attainment was the most important factor related to the diet score. In all, 55% (95% CI 50-59%) of women with no educational qualifications had scores in the lowest quarter of the distribution, compared with only 3% (95% CI 2-4%) of those who had a degree. Smoking, watching television, lack of strenuous exercise, and living with children were also associated with lower diet scores. After taking these factors into account, no other factor including social class, the deprivation score of the neighbourhood, or receipt of benefits added more than 1% to the variance in the diet score. Conclusions: Poor achievement at school defines a substantial group of women in the UK who may be vulnerable. Many of these women have poor diets that are not simply a result of the level of deprivation in their neighbourhood, or of living at a level of poverty that entitles them to benefits. We suggest that it is a priority to identify and to address the barriers that prevent these women from improving the quality of their diets. Sponsorship: The study was funded by the Dunhill Medical Trust, the University of Southampton and the Medical Research Council.

Robinson, T. N., M. Kiernan, et al. (2001). "Is parental control over children's eating associated with childhood obesity? Results from a population-based sample of third graders." Obesity Research. 9(5): 306-12.
	OBJECTIVE: Identifying parental behaviors that influence childhood obesity is critical for the development of effective prevention and treatment programs. Findings from a prior laboratory study suggest that parents who impose control over their children's eating may interfere with their children's ability to regulate intake, potentially resulting in overweight. These findings have been widely endorsed; however, the direct relationship between parental control of children's intake and their children's degree of overweight has not been shown in a generalized sample. RESEARCH METHODS AND PROCEDURES: This study surveyed 792 third-grade children with diverse ethnic and socioeconomic backgrounds from 13 public elementary schools. Parental control over children's intake was assessed through telephone interviews using a state-of-the-art instrument, and children were measured for height, weight, and triceps skinfold thickness. RESULTS: Counter to the hypothesis, parental control over children's intake was inversely associated with overweight in girls, as measured by body mass index, r = -0.12, p < 0.05, and triceps skinfolds, r = -0.11, p < 0.05. This weak relationship became only marginally significant when controlling for parents' perceptions of their own weight, level of household education, and children's age. No relationship between parental control of children's intake and their children's degree of overweight was found in boys. DISCUSSION: Previous observations of the influence of parental control over children's intake in middle-class white families did not generalize to 8- to 9-year-olds in families with diverse socioeconomic and ethnic backgrounds. The present findings reveal a more complex relationship between parental behaviors and children's weight status.

Robinson, V. (2003). "Masculinity studies and feminist theory." JOURNAL OF GENDER STUDIES 12(3): 239-240.
	
Robson, J. R. K., Ed. (1980). Food, ecology and culture : readings in the anthropology of dietary practices. London, Gordon and Breach.
	
Roby, A. L. and K. S. Woodson (2004). "An evaluation of a breast-feeding education intervention among Spanish-speaking families." Social Work in Health Care 40(1): 15-31.
	
Rocco, P. L., B. Orbitello, et al. (2005). "Effects of pregnancy on eating attitudes and disorders - A prospective study."  59(3): 175-179.
	The aim of this prospective study was to investigate the effects of pregnancy on eating disorders (ED), dietary habits and body image perception. One hundred and fifty pregnant women were interviewed between the period January 2001 and May 2003. Ninety-seven women completed the study and were divided in three subgroups: pregnant women with a positive history of dieting (n=37), pregnant women with a positive history of dieting with a complete diagnosis of a current ED (n=11) and pregnant women with a negative history either of dieting or ED (control group; n=49). Age, education and parity were equally distributed in all three groups. To verify if pregnancy exerts a specific protective effect, a battery of psychometric tests was administered to women at 12 degrees (TO), 22 degrees (T1), and 34 degrees pregnancy weeks (T2), and 2 days (T3) and 4 months (T4) after delivery, respectively. The study showed a quadratic trend for ED, subthreshold ED and body satisfaction, with a general improvement in the middle of pregnancy and a return to previous levels after delivery. Some interesting significant differences came out among the groups. (c) 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Rojek, C. (2004). "Leisure life: Myth, masculinity and modernity." JOURNAL OF LEISURE RESEARCH 36(1): 128-130.
	
Rooks, N. M. (2004). Ladies' pages : African American women's magazines and the culture that made them. New Brunswick, N.J. ; London, Rutgers University Press.
	
Roos, E., E. Lahelma, et al. (1998). "Gender, socioeconomic status and family status as determinants of food behaviour." Social Science and Medicine 46(12): 1519-1529.
	
Rose, N. (1999). Powers of Freedom: Reframing Political Thought. Cambridge:, Cambridge University Press.
	
Rose, N. (2000). "Community, Citizenship, and the Third Way,." American Behavioural Scientist 43(9): 1395-1411.
	
Rose, R. (2000). "How much does social capital add to individual health? A survey study of Russians,." Social Science & Medicine, 51(1421-1435.).
	
Rose, V. A., V. O. F. Warrington, et al. (2004). "Factors influencing infant feeding method in an urban community."  96(3): 325-331.
	The benefits of breastfeeding are well established. However, despite this fact, rates of breastfeeding continue to be low, falling far below the goals of Healthy People 2010. Rates are even lower among ethnic minority and low-income women. In this study, we attempt to identify the factors that most influence a mother's choice of infant feeding method in an urban predominately African-American population. Phone interviews of 70 women who delivered full-term infants at an urban tertiary care hospital were conducted in order to explore knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs about breastfeeding of the mothers and that of members of their social support network. Ten mothers (14%) exclusively breastfed. Older, caucasian, and married women were more likely to breastfeed. Breastfeeding mothers reported more partner support as well as more family knowledge about breastfeeding and had more positive attitudes about breastfeeding. Healthcare providers were not directly influential in mother's feeding choice. From this study, we conclude that in this population, the mother's partner and family are most influential in the choice of infant feeding method and, thus, should be included in breastfeeding promotion programs.

Rosengard, C., D. B. Chambers, et al. "Value on Health, Health Concerns and Practices of Women Who Are Homeless."
	The fastest growing segment of the homeless population is women, many of whom have inadequately addressed health needs. Descriptive studies have captured the realities of homeless life that these women face from acquiring food & shelter to caring for their health. Few studies have examined the factors that are associated with the health-related behaviors of homeless women. This study adds to the homeless health behavior literature by investigating the importance of competing values in determining health-related practices in 105 homeless women. Health concerns (but not global value on health) were associated with basic health practices & health preventive/protective behaviors (eg, brushing teeth, showering, being up-to-date on Pap smears). Women who reported greater importance attached to health concerns were more likely to report basic health practices & some preventive health behaviors. Implications for intervention & future research are discussed. 4 Tables, 28 References. Adapted from the source document.

Rosie, G. (1977). The warlocks of British publishing. The DC Thomson bumper fun book. P. Harris. Edinburgh, Paul Harris.
	
Rosilio, M., J. B. Cotton, et al. (1998). "Factors associated with glycemic control - A cross-sectional nationwide study in 2,579 French children with type 1 diabetes."  21(7): 1146-1153.
	OBJECTIVE - To determine on a large scale the multiple medical and nonmedical factors that influence glycemic control in the general population of children with diabetes, we performed a nationwide French cross-sectional study. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS - We enrolled 2,579 patients aged 1-19 years with type 1 diabetes of >1 year's duration. The study was center based: 270 centers were identified, 206 agreed to participate, and 147 included at least 90% of their patients. Questionnaires were completed by physicians interviewing patients and family, and HbA(1c), measurements were centralized. To identify explanatory variables for HbA(1c) level and frequency of severe hypoglycemia, we performed multiple regression analysis using all the quantitative variables collected and stepwise logistic regression for the qualitative variables. RESULTS - Mean HbA(1c) value for the whole population was 8.97 +/- 1.98% (normal 4.7 +/- 0.7% [SD]). Only 19 children (0.7%) had ketoacidosis during the 6 months before the study whereas 593 severe hypoglycemia events occurred in 338 children (13.8%). Control was better in university-affiliated hospitals and centers following >50 patients, reflecting the importance of access to experienced diabetologists. Children had a mean of 2.3 injections, allegedly performed 2.8 glucose measurements per day, and were seen an average of 4.6 times per year at the center. In the multiple regression analysis, 94% of the variance of HbA(1c), was explained by our pool of selected variables, with the highest regression coefficient between HbA(1c) and age (R-c = 0.43, P < 0.0001), then with daily insulin dosage per kilogram (R-c = 0.28, P < 0.0001), mother's age (R-c = 0.26, P < 0.0001), frequency of glucose measurements (R-c = 0.21, P < 0.0001), and diabetes duration (R-c = 0.14, P < 0.0001). Logistic regression identified quality of family support and dietary compliance, two related qualitative and possibly subjective variables, as additional explanatory determinants of HbA(1c). The frequency of severe hypoglycemia was 45 per 100 patient-years and correlated with diabetes duration, but not with HbA(1c) levels or other variables. CONCLUSIONS - Although overall results remain unsatisfactory, 33% of studied French children with type 1 diabetes had HbA(1c) <8%, the value obtained in Diabetes Control and Complications Trial adolescents treated intensively. Diabetes management in specialized centers should be encouraged.

Ross, S. (X1995). ""Do I really have to eat that?": a qualitative study of schoolchildren's food choices and preferences." Health Education Journal 54(3): 312-21.
	This study, conducted in l994, set out to explore food preferences, eating behaviour and food choice with Primary 7 children (mean age 11 years) in a small primary school in Edinburgh. A qualitative methodological approach was adopted, utilising focus groups and observational techniques. Analysis of the data indicated food choice was not determined by the health attributes of food but rather that values of preference, play, socialisation and convenience were given a higher priority than health by the children when making food choices. "Healthy" foods were found to be associated with the concept of a proper meal and homemade foods. A different classification of foods based on like and dislike was proposed to explain children's food choice.

Rothbaum, F., K. Rosen, et al. (2002). "Family systems theory, attachment theory, and culture." Family Process 41(3): 328-350.
	
Roy, K., C. Tubbs, et al. (2004). "Don't Have No Time: Daily Rhythms and the Organization of Time for Low Income Families." Family Relations 53(2): 168-178.
	Using ethnographic data from Welfare, Children, and Families: A ThreeCity Study, we examined time obligations and resource coordination of lowincome mothers. Longitudinal data from 75 African American, Hispanic, and nonHispanic White families residing in Chicago, including information on daily routines, perceptions of time, and access to resources, were gathered via participant observation and intensive semistructured interviews over 4 years. Results indicated that families constantly improvised daily rhythms to obtain and sustain resources, including child care, transportation, and social services. Participants were proactive in identifying and coordinating resources to transition from welfare to work or to maintain paid employment. Strategies used to coordinate resources and the cost associated with the inability to do so are discussed. Policy and social service recommendations are offered.

Rukszto, K. (1999). "Women's Magazines as Spaces for Dissent: Restructuring in Poland." Resources for Feminist Research 27(3-4): 83-95.
	Compares the Polish magazines Kobieta i Zycie [Woman and life] and Przyja Ciolka [Woman friend] as forums for women's voices during and after the Communist era, 1952-94. Women in the post-Communist period wanted control over their lives and the periodicals responded by printing more private advertising and advice and less government news.

Russell, H. (1984). "Canadian Ways : an Introduction to Comparative Studies of Housework, Stoves, and Diet in Great Britain and Canada." Material History Bulletin(19): 1-12.
	Looks at Canadian-sponsored programs established in Great Britain for the purpose of training women for domestic labor in Canada, and compares British and Canadian cooking technology, diet, and housework.

Russell, P. (2003). Narrative Constructions of British Culinary Culture. Geography. Sheffield, University of Sheffield: 267.
	
Ruxton, S. and H. National Children's (1992). "What's he doing at the family centre?" : the dilemmas of men who care for children. London, NCH.
	
Ryan, M. (2005). Have family meals gone out of fashion? BBC News.
	As the government plans a national tour to promote its Respect Agenda, published last month, the BBC News website examines the importance of the family meal for fostering respect. 

Saadeh, R. and J. Akre (1996). "Ten steps to successful breastfeeding: A summary of the rationale and scientific evidence."  23(3): 154-160.
	Ample evidence is available on the impact of health care practices and hospital routines and procedures on breastfeeding. Good practices enhance successful initiation mid establishment of breastfeeding and contribute to increased duration, just as inappropriate practices, and failure to support and encourage mothers, have the opposite effect. In 1991 the World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) jointly launched the Baby-Friendly Hospital Initiative, which aims to give every baby the best start in life by ensuring a health care environment where breastfeeding is the norm. The initiative is based on the principles summarized in a joint statement issued by the two organizations in 1989 on the role of maternity services in protecting, promoting, and supporting breastfeeding. To become truly baby-friendly, hospitals and maternity wards around the world are giving practical effect to the principles described in the joint WHO/UNICEF statement that have been synthesized into Ten Steps To Successful Breastfeeding. This summary of the rationale and scientific basis for the Ten Steps is presented in the light of cumulative experience demonstrating the crucial importance of these principles for the successful initiation and establishment of breastfeeding.

Saarikangas, K. (2006). "Displays of the Everyday: Relations between gender and the visibility of domestic work in the modern Finnish kitchen from the 1930s to the 1950s." Gender, Place and Culture 13(2): 161-172.
	
Saelens, B. E., M. M. Ernst, et al. (2000). "Maternal child feeding practices and obesity: a discordant sibling analysis." International Journal of Eating Disorders 27(4): 459-63.
	BACKGROUND: The relationship between maternal feeding practices and weight status of 7-12 year-old obese and nonobese siblings was evaluated in 18 families using a discordant sibling design. METHOD: Mothers completed measures of concern and perception of children's weight and eating behavior, their control over child feeding, and maternal eating behavior. RESULTS: Intraclass correlations suggested similarity between obese and nonobese siblings in maternal control over feeding. Mothers perceived differences between their obese and nonobese children's eating regulation. Mothers' weight status was positively associated with disinhibition of their own eating as well as concern about both their obese and nonobese children's weight and health. DISCUSSION: These findings fail to support the hypothesis that maternal control over child feeding is related to childhood obesity, but highlight the impact of maternal weight history and eating habits on her impression of children's future weight and health independent of the child's weight status. Copyright 2000 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Sakashita, R., N. Inoue, et al. (2004). "From milk to solids: a reference standard for the transitional eating process in infants and preschool children in Japan."  58(4): 643-653.
	Objective: This paper aims to establish a potential reference standard for the process of transition from milk to solid food in infants and preschool children in Japan, using the transitional food process (TFP) scale described by Sakashita et al. The background for variation and delay in the process are also discussed. Design: A randomized sample survey covering entire Japan. Setting: Mailing self-completion of questionnaires. Subjects: Randomized sample of 14 000 children aged 0-6 y and their family from 13 prefectures in Japan, namely Hokkaido, Aomori, Iwate, Niigata, Tokyo, Saitama, Fukui, Nagano, Nagoya, Hyogo, Yamaguchi, Kagoshima, and Okinawa. Methodology: Questionnaires requesting the TFP scale and background factors were sent to 14 000 children and families. The percentile ages were calculated. An eating ability index (EAI: number of accepted foods/total number of foods) x 100) was calculated. Regression analysis by analysis of covariance (ANCOVA; SPSS, 1997) was used to determine the influence of background factors on EAI. Results: From the 6747 (48.2%) effective answers received, percentile curves of the acceptability of each food on the scale were drawn, and used as initial reference standards. The 50 percentile age range of these 20 standard foods covers from 5 to 42 months after birth. The sensitive period for increasing the acceptance of foods in children was between 6 months and 21 2 y of age. ANCOVA regression model (R-2 = 0.605) showed that EAI was mostly influenced by age (P = 0.000), followed by feeding style (P = 0.000), infant food preparation (P = 0.000), information source (P = 0.000), and birth order (P = 0.003). The dominant cause of digestive system problems was shown to be infection, not too-hard food. It seems that breast feeding, bottle feeding with chewing-type nipples, and the manner of preparing infant foods from the family table promote the progress in acceptance. Children whose mothers followed the information given in books or magazines showed a slower progress. Conclusions: It seems appropriate to use this reference standard in the study of the transitional process from milk to solid food in infants and preschool children in Japan. Sponsorship: Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research, provided by the Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology Project No. 07838030.

Salsberry, P. J. and P. B. Reagan (2005). "Dynamics of early childhood overweight."  116(6): 1329-1338.
	Objective. To study the dynamic processes that drive development of childhood overweight by examining the effects of prenatal characteristics and early-life feeding (breastfeeding versus bottle feeding) on weight states through age 7 years. We test a model to determine whether prenatal characteristics and early-life feeding influence the development of a persistent early tendency toward overweight and/or whether prenatal characteristics and early-life feeding factors influence the likelihood that children will change weight states as they get older. Methods. Data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth's Child-Mother file were used to implement these analyses. A total of 3022 children were included in this sample. For inclusion in this sample, valid information on height and weight during 3 consecutive interviews when the child was aged 24 to 95 months as well as valid data on prenatal and birth characteristics were needed. The primary outcome measure was childhood overweight (BMI >95th percentile). Multivariate logistic models and first-order Markov models were estimated. Results. Early development of childhood overweight was associated with race, ethnicity, maternal prepregnancy obesity, maternal smoking during pregnancy, and later birth years. In later years, the factor that contributed the most to being overweight was having been overweight in the previous observation period. However, with conditioning on the child's having been overweight in the previous observation period, the prenatal factors that contributed to early childhood overweight, except for birth cohort, were also associated with development of overweight among children who had previously been normal weight and perpetuated the persistence of overweight over time. Conclusions. This research suggests that prenatal characteristics, particularly race, ethnicity, maternal smoking during pregnancy, and maternal prepregnancy obesity, exert influence on the child's weight states through an early tendency toward overweight, which then is perpetuated as the child ages. These findings are intriguing as they provide additional clues to the genesis of childhood overweight and suggest that overweight prevention may need to begin before pregnancy and in early childhood.

Salt, M. J., C. M. Law, et al. (1994). "Determinants of Breast-Feeding in Salisbury and Durham."  16(3): 291-295.
	Background The practice of breastfeeding is related to socio-demographic characteristics: both show marked variation by place within the United Kingdom. This study set out to test the commonly held assumption that geographical variations in breastfeeding practices are explained by socio-demographic differences. Methods The mothers of 326 six-week-old babies living in Salisbury or Durham Health Districts were interviewed to determine attitudes to breeastfeeding practice. Results More mothers in Salisbury breastfed than mothers in Durham, both immediately after birth (Salisbury 79 per cent, Durham 54 per cent) and at six weeks (50 per cent and 26 per cent). Higher rates of breastfeeding after birth were associated with higher level of qualification, encouragement to breastfeed antenatally and the mother having been breastfed herself. Higher rates at six weeks were associated with higher level of qualification, higher parity and willingness to breastfeed away from home. The differences between districts persisted after adjustment for these variables, but were diminished when willingness to breastfeed away from home was taken into account. Conclusion Differences between the two districts in breastfeeding practice cannot be wholly explained by traditional socio-demographic characteristics, and may be related to local culture. Health education is unlikely to change breastfeeding practices unless prevailing cultural attitudes also change.

Salzman, C. (1986). "Continuity and Change in the Culinary History of the Netherlands, 1945-75." Journal of Contemporary History 21(4): 605-628.
	Recipes represent ideal meals, and changes in meals reveal a society's development. A study of recipes may therefore disclose the time and purpose of social variations. Two leading women's magazines Margriet and The Hague Cookbook illustrate some of these changes in the post-World War II period: new interest in diet foods, frozen foods, more coffee, carbonated drinks, alcohol, American products, and Chinese-Indonesian dishes.

Samuel, R. and P. Thompson (1990). The Myths We Live By. London, Routledge.
	
Sanchez, S. and C. Castillo-Duran (2004). "Eating behavior disorders in Chilean infants." International Journal of Eating Disorders 36(3): 348-355.
	
Santos, L. R. and F. J. V. Leal (2005). "Assessment of expressed emotion in families of patients with eating disorders: using the Camberwell Family Interview on a Spanish sample."  33(6): 359-365.
	Introduction. The level of expressed emotion (EE) in the family members has been related to several clinical and outcome realted factors in patients with eating disorders. This study aimed to study the levels of EE in families of patients with eating disorders using the Camberwell Family Interview (CFI) in order to determine whether they were similar to those reported in other studies developed outside Spain. Methods. Seventy-one parents of 43 eating disorders patients were evaluated using a Spanish version of the CH. Results. In our sample, 46.5% of the families had EE high levels. There were no significant differences between mothers and fathers in global scores, but mothers tended to have higher emotional overinvolvement with the patient. Conclusions. The percentage of families that had high EE in our sample was lower than that reported for families with a member with schizophrenia and slightly higher than that detected in other studies on eating disorders. Mothers tended to have higher EE levels than fathers.

Sarris, M. (2003). "The masculinity studies reader." JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTE 9(2): 379-380.
	
Sarwar, T. (2002). "Infant feeding practices of Pakistani mothers in England and Pakistan."  15(6): 419-428.
	Objectives To investigate infant feeding practices followed by Pakistani mothers in Pakistan and in England. To establish if practices conform to current guidelines and to investigate reasons for adherence and nonadherence. Methods Ninety mothers of weaning age children were interviewed; 45 were in England and 45 in Pakistan. A questionnaire available in English and Urdu sought to find out about the methods of milk feeding and weaning used and the advice received, together with general beliefs about weaning. Results Characteristics of the infants in terms of current age, gender distribution, birth order of baby and age of weaning showed no significant differences between the two groups. Thus, differences between the two groups could be attributed to cultural differences rather than any of these factors. Chi-square analysis showed that the initial method of feeding chosen was significantly different ( P < 0.001, d. f. = 2) with 73% of mothers in Pakistan breast-feeding compared with 24% in England. Similar proportions of mothers in both groups commenced weaning between 3 and 4 months. Common weaning foods included rice, cereals and eggs with progression to fruit and vegetables and family food in Pakistan, and fruit, vegetables, meat and convenience foods ( especially sweet options) in England. Both groups of mothers wanted more information about infant feeding practices. Conclusion Mothers in Pakistan demonstrated more confidence in weaning practices than in England because of experiences with other siblings and advice from relatives. More advice from health professionals was requested and is needed by all mothers in order to improve weaning practices of the infants.

Satter, E. (2004). "Children, the feeding relationship, and weight." Maryland Medicine. 5(3): 26-8.
	
Saukko, P. (2005). Methodologies for Cultural Studies: An Integrative Approach. The Sage Handbook of Qualitative Research. N. K. Denzin and Y. S. Lincoln. California; London; New Dehli, Sage.
	
Savage, S. A. H., J. J. Reilly, et al. (1998). "Weaning practice in the Glasgow longitudinal infant growth study."  79(2): 153-156.
	Aims-To assess compliance with Department of Health guidelines on weaning practice in a representative sample of 127 infants from Glasgow, and to identify factors influencing timing of weaning. Methods-Questionnaires on feeding and weaning were completed during home visits. Ninety eight mothers completed a further questionnaire on attitudes to weaning Results-Median age at introduction of solid food was 11 weeks (range 4-35 weeks); only 7% of infants had not been weaned before age 4 months. There was no difference in timing of weaning between boys and girls. Younger mothers (< 20 years old), those of lower socioeconomic status, and those who formula fed their infants tended to introduce solids earlier. Infants who were heaviest before weaning were weaned earlier. Seventy three of 98 mothers reported that they weaned their babies because they felt that they required more food. Sources of information influencing time of weaning were previous experience (53/98), books and leaflets (43/98), advice from the health visitor (31/98), and family and friends (15/98). Sixty five of 98 mothers reported receiving formal information on weaning, in most cases (54) this was from the health visitor. Mothers who received formal information tended to wean their infants later. Two per cent of infants had been given cow's milk as a main drink by age 6 months, 17% by 9 months, and 45% by the end of the first year. Conclusion-Compliance with recommendations on timing of weaning (not before 4 months), weaning foods, and cow's milk consumption in Glasgow is poor, although no poorer than in many other areas of the UK as found by Office of Population, Censuses and Surveys. Public health messages in relation to weaning may not be reaching their target audience.

Sayers, G., L. Thornton, et al. (1995). "Influences on Breast-Feeding Initiation and Duration."  164(4): 281-284.
	The study objectives were to establish the prevalence of breast feeding at birth, at four and twelve weeks after birth and describe the factors associated with its initiation and duration, The study population consisted of all babies born in May 1993 (n=162) to mothers resident in Kildare, The response rate was 145/162 (89 percent). Mothers were visited within fourteen days of the birth. Breast feeding mothers were re-visited when the baby was four to six weeks old and at twelve to fourteen weeks, Interviews were conducted using an interviewer administered questionnaire. Fifty-five mothers (38%) chose to breast feed at birth. Twelve (8%) had stopped by the first, ten (7%) by the second and fourteen (10%) by the third visit. Higher social class and maternal grandmother having breast fed were significantly associated with initiation (p<0.05 and p<0.0005 respectively), Smokers and non-working mothers were significantly less likely to breast feed and smokers had a significantly shorter duration of breast feeding but these associations disappeared on social class adjustment.

Schafer, E., M. K. Vogel, et al. (1998). "Volunteer peer counselors increase breastfeeding duration among rural low-income women."  25(2): 101-106.
	Background: The purpose of this demonstration project was to test the effectiveness of a volunteer peer counseling program for promoting breastfeeding in a community. Methods: The two-year project was conducted in Iowa from September 1994 to September 1996. Both intervention and control groups were rural low-income pregnant and postpartum women who qualified for the Women, Infants and Children's (WIC) nutritional program. The intervention was initiated in two counties with 143 clients, of whom 72 completed the project The control group was drawn from six counties that had received no significant breastfeeding promotion programs during the previous three years. The intervention was the assignment of trained volunteers with previous successful personal experience with breastfeeding as peer counselors to low-income pregnant women. Both before and after the baby was born, the volunteers taught a series of in-home, one-to-one lessons about healthy diet and breastfeeding, and maintained informal contact to answer questions or help with concerns. Results: Women in the intervention group improved dietary intake when compared with the control group. Knowledge of breastfeeding and good nutrition improved slightly. Eighty-two percent of intervention compared with 31 percent of control group women initiated breastfeeding. Mean duration of breastfeeding for intervention and control group women was 5.7 and 2.5 weeks, respectively. At 4 weeks, 56 percent of intervention and 10 percent of control group women were still breastfeeding. Conclusion: A volunteer peer counseling program that provides low-income women with role models, accurate information, support, and encouragement can increase the duration of breastfeeding, and thus contribute to healthier infants.

Schafer, R. B., E. Schafer, et al. (1999). "Marital Food Interaction and Dietary Behavior." Social Science and Medicine 48(6): 787-796.
	Considers the role of family food interaction in healthful dietary activity. A theoretical model is proposed in which three sets of determinate variables are specified as leading to interaction in the family on food issues, which, in turn, is predicted to have a positive effect on four indicators of dietary quality. Interview data from 155 married couples in a midwestern state provide clear evidence of the importance of family food interaction for the quality of marital partners' diet. Also, differences found between husbands & wives indicate that wives contribute more to husbands' dietary quality than the reverse, suggesting again the dominant status of wives in family food selection & preparation. 3 Figures, 63 References. Adapted from the source document.

Schiefenhövel, P. W. a. W., Ed. (1996). Food and the status quest: an interdisciplinary perspective. Oxford, Berghahn Books.
	
Schlickau, J. M. and M. E. Wilson (2005). "Breastfeeding as health-promoting behaviour for Hispanic women: literature review." Journal of Advanced Nursing 52(2): 200-210.
	
Schmeid, V. and D. Lupton (2001). "Blurring the boundaries: breastfeeding and maternal subjectivity." Sociology of Health and Illness 23(2): 234-250.
	
Schmidt, A. (2004). "The three-piece suit and modern masculinity: England, 1550-1850." JOURNAL OF SOCIAL HISTORY 37(3): 816-818.
	
Schmied, V., A. Sheehan, et al. (2001). "Contemporary breast-feeding policy and practice: implications for midwives."  17(1): 44-54.
	In this paper, the authors draw upon recent Australian research to provide a critical commentary on the current policies and professional practices surrounding breast feeding. These studies, conducted by the first and second authors, explored aspects of the breast-feeding experience, with the findings highlighting areas for concern in relation to the promotion and support of breast feeding in western societies. Of particular concern to the authors was the number of women in these studies who equated breastfeeding with being a 'good' mother This perception meant that some women maintained a strong commitment to breast feeding despite enormous difficulties. In this paper we firstly overview the findings of these studies and use women's stories to illustrate their perseverance and their intense commitment to breast feeding. In the second part of the paper, we consider the consequences of the strong public rhetoric surrounding breast feeding in Australia and challenge some of the assumptions underlying policies and professional practices related to breast feeding. We examine the consequences of 'professionalising' breast feeding, and make suggestions for away forward in the promotion of breast feeding that encompasses the range of perspectives held by women. In conclusion, the authors highlight the complexity of establishing appropriate breast-feeding policies that guide professional practices in a flexible manner allowing for diversity in individual breast-feeding experiences, (C) 2000 Harcourt Publishers Ltd.

Schneider, Z. (2002). "An Australian study of women's experiences of their first pregnancy." Midwifery 18(3): 238-249.
	
Schoene-Harwood, B. (2000). Writing men : literary masculinites from Frankenstein to the new man. Edinburgh, Edinburgh University Press.
	
Scholliers, P. (1996). "Workers' Time for Cooking and Eating in Nineteenth-and Twentieth-Century Western Europe." Food and Foodways 6(3-4): 243-260.
	As the amount of time spent earning a living increased for the working class in the 19th century, meal preparation time at home diminished and families became more dependent on food shops. In general, the upper classes in the 19th and 20th centuries spent less time on meal preparation and more time eating than did the working class, with working-class women spending more time preparing food than men.

Schwalbe, M. (2005). "Fatherhood politics in the United States: Masculinity, sexuality, race, and marriage." CONTEMPORARY SOCIOLOGY-A JOURNAL OF REVIEWS 34(4): 399-401.
	
Schwartz, K., H. J. S. D'Arcy, et al. (2002). "Factors associated with weaning in the first 3 months postpartum." Journal of Family Practice 51(5): 439-444.
	
Schwartz, L. B. (2001). "Family systems discourse: Conversations with clients concerning the impact of family legacies upon sexual desire." Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy 27(5): 603-606.
	This article illuminates the benefits of using a feminist informed family systems approach (Bowen, 1978; Berman & Hof 1986; Carter & McGoldrick, 1999; Berman, 1999) to working with clients who present with concerns about low sexual desire. Often missed by evaluation questions based exclusively, on a medical model, a feminist informed family systems evaluation provides an opportunity to engage with the client in an expansive dialog about sexual functioning. The evaluation process often becomes a tool for clarifying (myth)perceptions about female sexuality

Scott, J. A., M. C. G. Landers, et al. (2001). "Factors associated with breastfeeding at discharge and duration of breastfeeding." Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health 37(3): 254-261.
	
Scott, J. A., I. Shaker, et al. (2004). "Parental attitudes toward breastfeeding: Their association with feeding outcome at hospital discharge." Birth-Issues in Perinatal Care 31(2): 125-131.
	
Segal, L. (1990). Slow motion : changing masculinities, changing men. London, Virago.
	
Seguin, L., Q. Xu, et al. (2005). "Understanding the dimensions of socioeconomic status that influence toddlers' health: unique impact of lack of money for basic needs in Quebec's birth cohort."  59(1): 42-48.
	Study objectives: To examine the unique impact of financial difficulties as measured by a lack of money for basic needs on the occurrence of health problems between the ages of 17 and 29 months, controlling for mother's level of education and neonatal health problems. Design and participants: Analyses were performed on the 29 month data of the Quebec longitudinal study of child development. This longitudinal study followed up a birth cohort annually. Interviews were conducted in the home with the mother in 98.8% of cases. This information was supplemented with data from birth records. At 29 months, the response rate was 94.2% of the initial sample (n = 1946). The main outcome measures were mothers' report of acute health problems, asthma episodes, and hospitalisation as well as growth delay and a composite index of health problems (acute problems, asthma attack, growth delay). Main results: Children raised in a family experiencing a serious lack of money for basic needs during the preceding year were more likely to be reported by their mothers as presenting acute health problems, a growth delay, two or more health problems, and to have been hospitalised for the first time within the past few months as compared with babies living in a family not experiencing a lack of money for basic needs regardless of the mother's level of education and of neonatal health problems. Conclusion: Financial difficulties as measured by a lack of money for basic needs have a significant and unique impact on toddlers' health.

Seguin, L., Q. Xu, et al. (2003). "Effects of low income on infant health."  168(12): 1533-1538.
	Background: Few population-based studies have analyzed the link between poverty and infant morbidity. In this study, we wanted to determine whether inadequate income itself has an impact on infant health. Methods: We interviewed 2223 mothers of 5-month-old children participating in the 1998 phase of the Quebec Longitudinal Study of Child Development to determine their infant's health and the sociodemographic characteristics of the household (including household income, breast-feeding and the smoking habits of the mother). Data on the health of the infants at birth were taken from medical records. We examined the effects of household income using Statistics Canada definitions of sufficient (above the low-income threshold), moderately inadequate (between 60% and 99% of the low-income threshold) and inadequate (below 60% of the low-income threshold) income on the mother's assessment of her child's overall health, her report of her infant's chronic health problems and her report of the number of times, if any, her child had been admitted to hospital since birth. In the analysis, we controlled for factors known to affect infant health: infant characteristics and neonatal health problems, the mother's level of education, the presence or absence of a partner, the duration of breast-feeding and the mothers smoking status. Results: Compared with infants in households with sufficient incomes, those in households with lower incomes were. more likely to be judged by their mothers to be in less than excellent health (moderately inadequate incomes: adjusted odds ratio [OR] 1.5, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.1-2.1; very inadequate incomes: adjusted OR 1.8, 95% CI 1.3-2.6). Infants in households with moderately inadequate incomes were more likely to have been admitted to hospital (adjusted OR 1.8, 95% CI 1.2-2.6) than those in households with sufficient incomes, but the same was not true of infants in households with very inadequate incomes (adjusted OR 0.7, 95% CI 0.4-1.2). Household income did not significantly affect the likelihood of an infant having chronic health problems. Interpretation: Less than sufficient household incomes are associated with poorer overall health and higher hospital admission rates among infants in the first 5 months of life, even after adjustment for factors known to affect infant health, including the mother's level of education.

Seidler, V. J. (1989). Rediscovering masculinity : reason, language and sexuality. London, Routledge.
	
Seidler, V. J. (1991). Recreating sexual politics : men, feminism and politics : Victor J. Seidler. London ; New York, Routledge.
	
Seidler, V. J. (1994). Unreasonable men : masculinity and social theory. London ; New York, Routledge.
	
Seidler, V. J. (1997). Man enough : embodying masculinities. London ; Thousand Oaks, Calif., SAGE Publications.
	
Seltzer, V. J. and M. R. Seltzer (2002). "A cultural anthropological approach to family therapy: Myths and magic." Voprosy Psikhologii(6): 93-+.
	The article describes a therapeutical approach to cultural models of a family. Methods leading to cultural changes in <<frozen>> family systems are analyzed in terms of anthropologically interpreted notions of the material and ideal cultural planes, magic and ritual interference. As an example the authors describe four cases from their practice analyzing the rituals used and the transformations enacted. The article concludes with a summary of theoretical implications and practical uses of a cultural approach to family therapy

Senior, R., J. Barnes, et al. (2005). "Early experiences and their relationship to maternal eating disorder symptoms, both lifetime and during pregnancy."  187: 268-273.
	Background There is some evidence that early sexual abuse is an aetiological factor for eating disorder. However, there is sparse information from large-scale, non-clinical studies. Aims This study was designed to explore which early experiences, recalled during pregnancy, were associated with both lifetime and antenatal eating disorder symptoms in a community sample. Method Univariate and multivariate analyses were conducted of data. from questionnaires administered during pregnancy to a community sample of pregnant women. Results Recall of parental mental health problems and of early unwanted sexual experiences were independently associated with both lifetime eating problems, laxative use and vomiting during pregnancy, and marked concern during pregnancy over shape and weight. Conclusions There are public health implications for these results. Eating disorders in mothers represent a risk for child development. It may be important to enquire during pregnancy about a history of eating problems and to provide the opportunity for early experiences to be discussed. Declaration of interest None.

Sertorio, S. C. M. and I. A. Silva (2005). "The symbolic and utilitarian facets of pacifiers according to mothers." Revista De Saude Publica 39(2): 156-162.
	
Shaker, I., J. A. Scott, et al. (2004). "Infant feeding attitudes of expectant parents: breastfeeding and formula feeding." Journal of Advanced Nursing 45(3): 260-268.
	
Shakespeare, J., F. Blake, et al. (2004). "Breast-feeding difficulties experienced by women taking part in a qualitative interview study of postnatal depression." Midwifery 20(3): 251-260.
	
Shan, C. W. (1996). Construction of women's image in the women's magazines in Hong Kong (1988-1992), University of York.
	
Shariff, Z. M. and G. L. Khor (2005). "Obesity and household food insecurity: evidence from a sample of rural households in Malaysia."  59(9): 1049-1058.
	Objective: The study examined nutritional outcomes related to body fat accumulation of food insecurity among women from selected rural communities in Malaysia. Design: Cross-sectional study. Setting: Rural communities ( seven villages and two palm plantations) in a district with high percentage of welfare recipients. Subjects and Measurements: Malay ( n = 140) and Indian ( n = 60) women were interviewed and measured for demographic, socioeconomic, anthropometric, dietary and physical activity information. The women were measured for their body mass index and waist circumference ( WC). Energy and nutrient intakes, food group intake and food variety score were analyzed from 24 h dietary recalls and food-frequency questionnaire. Daily physical activity of the women was examined as the number of hours spent in economic, domestic, leisure and sport activities. Results: Using the Radimer/Cornell Hunger and Food Insecurity Instrument, 58% of the women reported some degree of food insecurity ( household insecure 14%, adult insecure 9.5% and child hunger 34.5%). In general, food-insecure women had lower years of education, household income and income per capita, more children and mothers as housewives. More than 50% of food-insecure women were overweight and obese than women from food-secure households (38%). Similarly, more food-insecure women ( 32 - 47%) had at-risk WC (>= 88 cm) than food-secure women (29%). Food-insecure women spent significantly more time in domestic and leisure activities than food- secure women. Overweight and abdominal adiposity among the women were associated with a number of independent variables, such as women as housewives, women with more children, larger household size, food insecurity, shorter time spent in economic activities, longer time spent in leisure activities and lower food variety score. After adjusting for factors that are related to both adiposity and food insecurity, women from food- insecure households were significantly more likely to have at-risk WC, but not obese. Conclusion: Among this sample of rural women, the relationship between food insecurity and obesity is a complex one, which involves the interaction with other factors. Nevertheless, given that obesity and food insecurity are of public health concerns in the developing nations, the association between the two should be further investigated.

Shaw, D. (2005). Modelling Consumer Decision Making in Fair Trade. The Ethical Consumer. R. Harrison, T. Newholm and D. Shaw. London, Sage: 137-154.
	
Shaw, G. M., E. M. Velie, et al. (1996). "Risk of neural tube defect-affected pregnancies among obese women."  275(14): 1093-1096.
	Objective.-To investigate the risk for neural tube defect (NTD)-affected pregnancies among obese women (ie, women with a body mass index [BMI] >29 kg/m(2)) compared with women of average prepregnancy weight. Design.-Population-based case-control study. Setting.-All hospitals in 55 of 58 counties in California. Participants.-In-person interviews were conducted with mothers of 538 (88% of eligible) NTD cases (including fetuses and infants electively terminated, stillborn, or born alive) and with mothers of 539 nonmalformed controls (88%) within an average of 5 months from the term delivery date. Main Outcome Measures.-The risk of an NTD-affected pregnancy among obese women. Results.-Compared with women whose BMI was less than or equal to 29 kg/m(2), an increased risk for NTD-affected pregnancy was observed among obese women (odds ratio, 1.9; 95% confidence interval, 1.3 to 2.9). The increased risk was not attributable to maternal nonuse of a vitamin containing folic acid, diabetes, use of diet pills, lower dietary folate intake, or an NTD-pregnancy history. Adjustment for maternal age, education, gravidity, use of vitamins, and use of alcohol did not change the odds ratio. The risk associated with maternal obesity was greater for spina bifida and for other less prevalent NTDs than for anencephaly. Conclusion.-Because as many as 10% of women maybe obese periconceptionally, the observed twofold increased risk is relevant to the population burden of NTDs.

Shaw, P. (1997). "Demystifying Women's Magazines in Taiwan." DAI 58(5): 1490-A.
	
Shaw, P. (2000). "Changes in Female Roles in Taiwanese Women's Magazines, 1970-1994." Media History 6(2): 151-160.
	Taiwanese women's magazines became more readily available following a resurgence in feminist issues and a rise in general educational, economic, and social opportunities and mobility in the late 1960's. Changes in social positioning can be seen in extended analyses of magazine content in recent decades. An analysis of gender roles in over six hundred articles published between 1971 and 1994 in the middle-class magazine Woman and its working-class counterpart New Woman demonstrates that such shifts have been more pronounced in middle-class texts than in working-class publications. In the case of Woman, there is a notable decline in the portrayal of women as wives, mothers, and homemakers, with a corresponding increase in politically, socially, and economically themed discussions. In contrast, New Woman has remained more passive and traditional in its content and discussion of women's roles in Taiwanese society. While awareness of the women's movement increased in general in Taiwan over the twenty years covered in the survey, this did not translate into a similar awareness in all mass market Taiwanese publications aimed at women.

Shaw, R. (2004). "Performing breastfeeding:embodiment, ethics and the maternal subject." Feminist Review 78: 99-116.
	
Sheehan, A., V. Schmied, et al. (2003). "Australian women's stories of their baby-feeding decisions in pregnancy." Midwifery 19(4): 259-266.
	
Shepherd, M. (1997). Re-thinking masculinity : discourses of gender and power in two workplaces.
	
Shepherd, R. (1999). "Social determinants of food choice." Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 58: 807-812.
	
Sherry, B., J. McDivitt, et al. (2004). "Attitudes, practices, and concerns about child feeding and child weight status among socioeconomically diverse white, Hispanic, and African-American mothers." Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 104(2): 215-21.
	Parents play an important role in the development of their children's eating behaviors. We conducted 12 focus groups (three white, three African-American, and three Hispanic-American low-income groups; three white middle-income groups) of mothers (N=101) of 2- to less than 5-year-old children to explore maternal attitudes, concerns, and practices related to child feeding and perceptions about child weight. We identified the following major themes from responses to our standardized focus group guide: 12 groups wanted to provide good nutrition, and most wanted children to avoid eating too many sweets and processed foods; 12 groups prepared foods their children liked, accommodated specific requests, and used bribes and rewards to accomplish their feeding goals (sweets were commonly used as bribes, rewards, or pacifiers); and 11 of 12 groups believed their children were prevaricating when they said they were full and mothers encouraged them to eat more. The common use of strategies that may not promote healthful weight suggests work is needed to develop culturally and socioeconomically effective overweight prevention programs. Further study is needed to verify racial/ethnic or income differences in attitudes, practices, and concerns about child feeding and perceptions of child weight.

Shih, C. K. and M. R. Jenike (2002). "A cultural-historical perspective on the depressed fertility among the matrilineal Moso in Southwest China." Human Ecology 30(1): 21-47.
	Family systems exert substantial influence on the demographic processes of populations. The Moso in Southwest China feature an institutionalized visiting sexual system, which differs from marriage, and a grand household system without conjugal units. Moso women enjoy virtually unlimited reproductive autonomy. On the basis of surveys of 12 Moso households conducted in 1988 and 1989, this paper analyzes the fertility experience of Moso women during the twentieth century and the mortality rates of the Moso population in the PRC era. Moso fertility patterns are characterized by a late age at first birth (median 23 years), long interbirth intervals (median 3 years), and a high rate of childlessness (16%). We conclude that this pattern of low fertility is an outcome of the unique Moso cultural practices. For the cohorts of Moso women born between 1905 and 1929, pathological sterility caused by STD is likely to have depressed fertility as well

Shiva, F. and M. Nasiri (2003). "A study of feeding patterns in young infants." Journal of Tropical Pediatrics 49(2): 89-92.
	
Shortt, S. E. D. (2004). "Making sense of social capital, health and policy." Health Policy 60(11-22).
	
Siefert, K., C. M. Heflin, et al. "Food Insufficiency and Physical and Mental Health in a Longitudinal Survey of Welfare Recipients."
	Food insufficiency is a significant problem in the US, & poor African American women with children are at especially high risk. An inadequate household food supply can potentially affect the well-being of household members, but it is difficult to distinguish the effects of food insufficiency from risk factors for poor health that are also common among the food insufficient, such as poverty. We examined food insufficiency & physical & mental health among African American & white women (n = 676) who were welfare recipients in 1997. Controlling for common risk factors, women who reported food insufficiency in both 1997 & 1998 were more likely to report fair or poor health at the later date. Food insufficiency in 1998 was significantly associated with meeting the diagnostic screening criteria for recent major depression. Food insufficiency at both times & in 1998 only was related to women's sense of mastery. These findings add to growing evidence that household food insufficiency is associated with poor physical & mental health. 6 Tables, 55 References. Adapted from the source document.

Siefert, K., C. M. Heflin, et al. "Food Insufficiency and the Physical and Mental Health of Low-Income Women."
	Poor women with children are disproportionately represented among the food insufficient. Recent research has linked food insufficiency with dietary deficiencies, but further research linking this problem to health & mental health problems is needed to inform health & social policy. We analyzed the relationship between food insufficiency & physical & mental health in a random sample of 724 single women who were welfare recipients in Feb 1997. Food insufficiency was significantly associated with poor or fair self-rated health & physical limitations, & with respondents' meeting DSM-III-R criteria for recent major depression. Although the cross-sectional design of this study precludes causal inference, these findings add to a growing body of evidence that food insufficiency is associated with serious adverse physical & mental health consequences. 2 Tables, 74 References. Adapted from the source document.

Silverstein, L. A., CF; Levant, RF (2002). "Contemporary fathers reconstructing masculinity: Clinical implications of gender role strain." PROFESSIONAL PSYCHOLOGY-RESEARCH AND PRACTICE 33(4): 361-369.
	How can research data about gender role strain improve clinical work with men? The authors present qualitative data from 3 groups of fathers in the Yeshiva University Fatherhood Project: Haitian American, Promise Keeper, and gay fathers. The data illustrate the specific types of gender role strain associated with contemporary fathering and show how men are spontaneously reconstructing fathering and masculinity in general. The authors use clinical examples to show how psychologists can make use of this research knowledge in the diagnosis and treatment of men.

Simpson, I. H. (2003). "The Disappearance of the Family Meal and the Epidemic of Obesity." Southern Sociological Society (SSS).
	Societal & family changes have largely destroyed the family meal, with the consequence of high caloric intake far beyond what the family meal offered. A family meal is ritualized through the gathering of family members sitting & talking together while eating food prepared by an adult, usually the mother/wife, to provide the family with a nourishing & hearty meal. The family as a whole - its resources & even diet restrictions of family members - are kept in mind in meal preparation. During the last half of the 20th century, family members & their roles have been privatized, & family functions have been outsourced & commercialized to make the family meal an increasing rarity. Sales of prepackaged prepared foods, fast foods, take-out & eat-in meals at restaurants, & snack foods (potato chips, colas, candy, & other goodies), all of which are highly adaptable to privatized lifestyles, have sharply increased, alongside women's working outside the home for pay. Correlated with these changes has been an increase in obesity, most alarmingly among children. This paper will bring together aggregate statistical & interview data to identify societal & family changes that have combined to erode the family meal, & the effect of the loss of the social control of a collective ritual on caloric intake, especially among children.

Simpson, R. (2004). "Masculinity at work: the experiences of men in female dominated occupations." WORK EMPLOYMENT AND SOCIETY 18(2): 349-368.
	This article presents the findings of a research project on the implications of men's non-traditional career choices for their experiences within the organization and for gender identity. The research is based on 40 in-depth interviews with male workers from four occupational groups: librarians, cabin crew, nurses, and primary school teachers. Results suggest a typology of male workers in female dominated occupations: seekers (who actively seek the career): finders (who find the occupation in the process of making general career decisions) and settlers (who settle into the career after periods of time in mainly male dominated occupations). Men benefit from their minority status through assumptions of enhanced leadership (the assumed authority effect), by being given differential treatment (the special consideration effect) and being associated with a more careerist attitude to work (the career effect). At the same time, they feel comfortable working with women (the zone of comfort effect). Despite this comfort, men adopt a variety of strategies to re-establish a masculinity that has been undermined by the feminine nature of their work. These include re-labelling, status enhancement and distancing from the feminine. The dynamics of maintaining and reproducing masculinities within the non-traditional work setting are discussed in the light of recent theorizing around gender, masculinity and work.

Singh, M. B. and J. Lakshminarayan (2002). "Study of prevalent maternal beliefs regarding diet during common childhood illness in Thar Desert, Rajasthan."  41(1): 85-88.
	A study was conducted in 17 villages of Thar Desert, categorized in three ecological sub-regions, i.e., Marusthali, Shekhawati and Luni basin. Information on maternal beliefs regarding diet during common childhood illness, demography and other socio-economic aspects was collected through interview techniques from 434 rural young mothers who represented the entire caste groups present. Majority of the women (94%) were illiterate, and 48% belonged to lower and upper middle-income groups. The respondents opined on the basis of their traditional beliefs, items preferred and restricted during different, types of illness. Accordingly the food items were divided into cold, hot, light, windy, heavy and other characteristics. Cold food, like curd with rice and turmeric were preferred during diarrhoea and dysentery, but hot food.,like millet and jaggery were avoided. During measles and typhoid only hot food like lebta of millet was preferred to hasten the appearance of rashes. Information on such local maternal beliefs regarding diet during common childhood illness in Thar Desert will help in organizing nutrition and health education programs for desert areas by encouraging the useful practices and discouraging the harmful ones.

Sisk, P. M., C. A. Lovelady, et al. (2006). "Lactation counseling for mothers of very low birth weight infants: Effect on maternal anxiety and infant intake of human milk." Pediatrics 117(1): E67-E75.
	
Skills, D. f. E. a. (2003). Every Child Matters. London, HMSO.
	
Skinner, J. D., B. R. Carruth, et al. (1997). "Transitions in infant feeding during the first year of life."  16(3): 209-215.
	Objective: To document ages at which transitions in infant feeding occur, to compare these transitions to literature reports from the 1970s and 80s, and to identify maternal characteristics related to the age of the infant when solid food was first introduced. Methods: Ninety-eight mother/infant pairs (middle and upper socioeconomic status) participated in the longitudinal study. Using a randomized, incomplete block design, in-home interviews were conducted by trained personnel when infants were 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 10, and 12 months of age; each mother/infant pair was seen four or five times. Information on food intake, including breast milk/formula, was collected at each interview. Means +/-SD and frequencies were calculated, and least squares analysis of variance was used to develop a predictive model related to the introduction of cereal. Results: Most mothers decided on the initial feeding mode (breastfeeding or formula) prior to pregnancy; 83% breastfed initially although most (76%) totally discontinued breastfeeding by 6 months. Infants' ages varied greatly when each of the seven categories of food was introduced; cereal was added to the infants' diets at a mean age of 3.8+/-1.4 (SD) months, juice 4.7+/-2.2, fruit 4.9+/-1.6, vegetables 5.2+/-1.3, mixed foods 7.8+/-2.1, table foods 8.2+/-2.1, and meat 8.2+/-2.1. The multivariate model explained 59% of the variability in ages of infants when cereal (generally the first solid food) was added. Significant variables (p less than or equal to 0.05) were feeding mode, recommendation by the physician, and the interaction between feeding mode and education of the mother. Mother's employment and sibling rank of the infant contributed to the model (p=0.06 and p=0.09, respectively). Infants' age when cereal was added was not related to the variables of gender or birth weight. Conclusions: The finding that the mothers' decision whether or not to breastfeed was made prior to conception supports the importance of population-based education aimed at women in the child-bearing years as well as patient instruction early in the pregnancy. However, the duration of breastfeeding was shorter than was reported in the 1980s. Infants varied greatly in ages when the seven categories of complementary foods were added to their diets. Although recommendations for delaying introduction of solid foods until the infant is 4 to 6 months of age have been in place for more than a decade, about half the mothers in this study did so earlier. Characteristics of mothers who introduced cereal earliest (i.e., mean age of infants <4 months) were more likely to be formula feeding when cereal was added, to feed cereal via the bottle, to be primiparous, to be employed outside the home, and/or not to cite the physician as a source for guiding the infant's transition to supplemental food.

Skinner, J. D., B. R. Carruth, et al. (1998). "Mealtime communication patterns of infants from 2 to 24 months of age."  30(1): 8-16.
	The purposes of this study were to document mealtime communication behaviors used by 98 Caucasian infants who vr ere studied longitudinally from 2 to 24 months of age and to describe how these behaviors changed in the group over time. Using both closed- and open-ended questions in personal interviews, these middle and upper socioeconomic status mothers reported how their infants communicated hunger, satiety and food likes and dislikes. Mothers also reported their own response behaviors when they believed that their infants had not eaten enough. Only a few mealtime communication behaviors were common to all infants, suggesting that infants use various behaviors to communicate similar messages. Food likes were most often communicated by mouth/eating behaviors, such as opening the mouth as food approached, eating readily or eating a large amount of food. Food dislikes were communicated by mouth/eating behaviors, by facial expressions, and by body movements, such as turning the head or body away from food or throwing disliked food. When the mother perceived that the child had not eaten enough, most mothers offered alternative choices, either at mealtime or shortly thereafter. The results indicate that most infants are communicating via behaviors in feeding situations throughout the 2- to 24-month period.

Skinner, J. D., B. R. Carruth, et al. (1999). "Longitudinal study of nutrient and food intakes of white preschool children aged 24 to 60 months."  99(12): 1514-1521.
	Objective To determine nutrient and food intakes of 72 white preschool children primarily from families of middle and upper socioeconomic status and to compare children's nutrient intakes with current recommendations. Design Six in-home interviews were conducted with mothers when children were 24 to 60 months old; at each time mothers provided 3 days of dietary information on the child. Children and mothers independently provided information on the child's favorite and least favorite foods at 42 and 54 months. Subjects Preschool children (24 to 60 months old) participating in a longitudinal study. Statistical analyses Mean nutrient intakes were compared with the most recent Recommended Dietary Allowances/Adequate Intakes. Differences over time were tested with repeated-measures analysis of variance; gender differences were determined with t tests. Food frequencies (ie, percentage of children consuming specific foods) were determined from dietary recalls and food records. Dietary variety vp-as assessed with the Variety Index for Toddlers or the Variety Index for Children. Results Means were consistently less than the RDA/AI for energy, zinc, folate, and vitamins D and E. Energy, carbohydrate, and fat intakes were highest (P less than or equal to.01) at 60 months. Boys consumed more (P less than or equal to.05) protein (10 g), calcium (197 mg), magnesium (35 mg), and pantothenic acid (0.8 mg) at 60 months than did girls. Foods most commonly eaten were fruit drink, carbonated beverages, 2% milk, and french fries. The Vegetable group consistently had the lowest variety scores; vegetables also dominated least; favorite foods lists. Applications Parents need to be encouraged to include more sources of zinc, folate, Vitamin E, and vitamin D in children's diets. Parents should also encourage their children to eat more vegetables, zinc- and folate-fortified cereals, lean red meats, seafood, vegetable oils, and low-fat milk.

Skinner, J. D., B. R. Carruth, et al. (1997). "Longitudinal study of nutrient and food intakes of infants aged 2 to 24 months."  97(5): 496-504.
	Objective To determine the nutrient and food intakes of healthy, white infants from families of middle and upper socioeconomic status and to compare intakes to current recommendations. Design Using an incomplete random block design, we interviewed 98 mother-infant pairs longitudinally when infants were 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, and 24 months old. Data obtained included 24-hour dietary recalls, usual food intake, and food likes and dislikes. Setting Interviews were conducted in the mother's home by registered dietitians. Subjects resided in two urban areas of Tennessee. Subjects Of the original 98 subjects, 94 completed the 2-year study. Results Mean energy and nutrient intakes generally met or exceeded the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA). Exceptions were zinc and vitamin D, which were each below 100% of the RDA at 9 of the 10 data points, and vitamin E, which was below the RDA in the infants' second year. Fat intake decreased from more than 40% of energy in the first 6 months to 30% to 32% from 10 to 24 months. One third of the infants drank reduced-fat milks at 12 months and more than half drank them at 24 months. Although infants ate a variety of foods, vegetables often were the least favorite foods. A variety of dairy products provided calcium for the infant but lacked vitamin D. Conclusions Several nutritional issues about infant feeding before 2 years of age arose. Low intakes of zinc, vitamin D, and vitamin E were observed. In the second year, low fat intake, use of reduced-fat milks, and dislike of vegetables were areas of concern.

Smart, C. (2005). "Textures of family life: Further thoughts on change and commitment." Journal of Social Policy 34: 541-556.
	This article attempts to account for the existence of parallel systems of values in families where grandparents condemn divorce, yet act to support their adult children when they face relationship breakdown. The article seeks to understand the context in which values are formed and how they can gradually become more complex and contradictory as social and personal contexts change. The article explores change across two generations of family relationships in order to add to the debate on whether commitments within families are in decline. It also addresses the question of how policies on families can be formulated given the complexity, and contradictory nature, of the values that family members hold.

Smart, C. (2006). "Children's narratives of post-divorce family life: from individual experience to an ethical disposition." Sociological Review 54(1): 155-170.
	This article draws on interviews with 60 children and young people to explore how they construct narrative accounts of post-divorce family life. Rather than seeking to describe children's experiences as if their accounts are simple factual recollections, the focus of the article is on how young people position themselves in their narratives and the ways in which they construct their past experiences. It is argued that these narratives are multi-layered, often revealing ambivalence and contradictions. The conclusion turns to the question of whether these individual accounts can give rise to what might be referred to as an ethical disposition in which children's experiences can inform a broader social ethos on how to divorce 'in the proper manner'.

Smith, G. D. (1998). "Negotiating space: alternative masculinities at the work/home boundary." Australian Geographer 29(3): 327-339.
	
Smith, J. W. and M. R. Tully (2001). "Midwifery management of breastfeeding: Using the evidence." Journal of Midwifery & Womens Health 46(6): 423-438.
	
Smith, M. M., M. Durkin, et al. (2003). "Initiation of breastfeeding among mothers of very low birth weight infants."  111(6): 1337-1342.
	Objective. To examine factors that predict the initiation of expressed milk feedings and the transition to direct breastfeedings among mothers of very low birth weight (VLBW) infants. Methods. The sample consists of 361 mother-infant pairs enrolled in a follow-up study of children aged 6 to 8 years who were born weighing <1501 g in 1 of 5 hospitals between 1991-1993. Chart review at birth provided data on neonatal characteristics and demographic factors at delivery were obtained by postpartum maternal interview. Information regarding infant feeding practices was obtained at follow-up. Results. In this study, 60% of mothers initiated expressed milk feedings for their VLBW infants. However, the duration of these feedings was brief with 52% of infants receiving 1 to 3 months or less of human milk feedings. Greater educational attainment, private insurance, and breastfeeding experience were each independently associated with the decision to provide expressed milk feedings. Only 27% of mothers reported directly breastfeeding their VLBW infants. The transition from expressed milk feedings to direct breastfeedings was positively associated with sociodemographic factors including maternal age, insurance status, and breastfeeding experience as well as the length of hospitalization, an indicator of infant health. Conclusions. Sociodemographic factors were associated with both the decision to initiate expressed milk feedings and the transition to direct breastfeedings. However, factors relating to infant health only influenced the transition to direct breastfeedings. Intervention programs need to consider the sociodemographic factors that influence infant feeding decisions as well as specific challenges encountered by mothers of VLBW infants.

Smith, P. E. (1995). Women's magazines : 1995 market report, Key Note.
	
Sobal, J. (2005). "Men, Meat, and Marriage: Models of Masculinity." Food and Foodways 13: 135-158.
	
Sohn, A. (2002). "A man's place. Masculinity and the middle class home in Victorian England." MOUVEMENT SOCIAL(198): 158-161.
	
Sorensen, E. (1999). Obligating Dads: helping low-income non-custodial fathers do more for heir children. Washington, US, The Urban Institute.
	Too few poor children who live apart from their fathers can count on their financial support. In 1996, only 30 percent of poor children who lived apart from their dads received child support. That year, welfare reform addressed this hard fact, stepping up efforts to collect child support. But increased child support alone will not be enough; further support, economic incentives, and revised child support policies are needed to enable low income non-custodial fathers to take financial responsibility for their children.

Sosin, M. R. "Homeless and Vulnerable Meal Program Users: A Comparison Study."
	It is generally accepted that individuals become homeless after living in an impoverished but domiciled vulnerable state. Here, individual determinants of the decline from vulnerability are explored using data obtained in 1986 via interviews with a sample of 535 homeless & domiciled men & women receiving free food from programs in Chicago, Ill, to test whether the groups can be differentiated on 3 sets of deficits: alienation, disabilities, & occupational. Also examined is whether the loss of a domicile reflects a lack of access to support offered by social institutions. Results indicate that variables representing lack of access are the best predictors of homelessness, but certain deficits have limited importance in specific subsamples. It is suggested that the generally limited role of deficits may occur because the most problem-ridden adults are protected from homelessness & from vulnerability. Differentials across gender as well as previous homeless history are also noted & explained. 6 Tables, 1 Appendix, 52 References. Adapted from the source document.

Sothern, M. S. (2004). "Obesity prevention in children: physical activity and nutrition." Nutrition 20: 704-708.
	
Sothern, M. S. (2004). "Obesity prevention in children: physical activity and nutrition."  20(7-8): 704-708.
	The current environmental experience of young children includes few opportunities for physical activity and an overabundance of high calorie foods. Sedentary lifestyles and poor nutrition challenge children who are predisposed to metabolic disorders. Obesity is a logical response to this challenge. To prevent clinically significant obesity and later metabolic disease in predisposed youth, all sectors of society must work together to support strategies to change public opinion and behavior across the life span. Parental education in all medical settings is strongly recommended, especially if the parent(s) are obese, beginning with the first pregnancy visit to the physician. Schools should be primary targets for efforts to educate parents concerning the reduction of TV, computer games, and unhealthy snacks. Schools should be encouraged to adopt vending machine policies that promote healthy drinks and food in appropriate portion sizes and discouraged from providing unhealthy food as rewards for positive behavior or academic accomplishment. Schools should provide daily physical education and frequent periods of unstructured play in young children. Clinical treatment should be both encouraged and financially supported in children who are already overweight. Community wide efforts to increase awareness and promote environments that encourage physical activity and healthy nutrition are needed.

Spatz, D. L. (2004). "Ten steps for promoting and protecting breastfeeding for vulnerable infants." Journal of Perinatal & Neonatal Nursing 18(4): 385-396.
	
Spear, B. A. (2006). "The need for family meals."  106(2): 218-219.
	
Spruijt-Metz, D., C. Li, et al. (2006). "Longitudinal influence of mother's child-feeding practices on adiposity in children." Journal of Pediatrics 148: 314-320.
	
Spruijt-Metz, D., C. H. Lindquist, et al. (2002). "Relation between mothers' child-feeding practices and children's adiposity." American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 75(3): 581-6.
	BACKGROUND: The prevalence of obesity in American children is currently estimated to be 25%. Poor nutritional habits during childhood have been directly related to pediatric obesity. OBJECTIVE: Our objective was to evaluate the relation between mothers' child-feeding practices and children's adiposity in a sample of boys and girls from 2 ethnic groups. DESIGN: A total of 74 white (25 boys and 49 girls) and 46 African American (22 boys and 24 girls) children ( plus minus SD age: 11 plus minus 1.7 y) and their mothers participated in this study. The children's body composition was assessed by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. The mothers' child-feeding practices were assessed with the Child Feeding Questionnaire. Dietary intake data were based on three 24-h dietary recalls conducted by use of the multiple-pass technique. RESULTS: Two subscales of the Child Feeding Questionnaire, pressure to eat and concern for child's weight, explained 15% of the variance in total fat mass in both African American and white boys and girls (P < 0.001) after correction for total lean mass and energy intake (which explained 5% of the variance in total fat mass). Ethnicity, sex, and socioeconomic status did not contribute significantly to variance in total fat mass. CONCLUSIONS: Child-feeding practices are key behavioral variables that explain more of the variance in total fat mass than does energy intake in a biethnic population of boys and girls. These findings have important implications for the prevention of obesity in children because they suggest that prevention programs need to focus on the feeding behaviors of parents in addition to the macronutrient and energy intakes of children.

Sreenivas, M. (2003). "Emotion, Identity, and the Female Subject: Tamil Women's Magazines in Colonial India, 1890-1940." Journal of Women's History 14(4): 59-82.
	Reports on an examination of periodicals written, some in Tamil and some in English, for a female audience in the Madras area of India between 1890 and 1940. Over time, these women's magazines changed from a focus on educating females to a concentration on helping women to be effective wives and still later to articles which dealt with such emotional issues as romance, love, and widows' rights to pleasure and remarriage. A parallel is drawn between India asserting its right to be free of colonialism and women asserting their right to be free of oppression within marriage.

Stacey, J. (1990). Brave New Families:stories of domestic upheaval in the late twentieth century America New York, Basic Books.
	
Stacey, J. (1996). Brave New Families. New York, Basic Books.
	
Stainton Rogers, W. (2001). Constructing Childhood, Constructing Child Concern. Children in Society - Contemporary Theory, Policy and Practice. P. Foley, J. Roche and S. Tucker. Basingstoke, Palgrave: 26-33.
	
Standish, P. (2005). "Towards an economy of higher education,." Critical Quarterly, 47 47(1-2): 53-71.
	
Stang, J., J. Rehorst, et al. (2004). "Parental feeding practices and risk of childhood overweight in girls: implications for dietetics practice." Journal of the American Dietetic Association 104(7): 1076-1079.
	
Stanley, A. C. (2004). "Hearth, Home, and Steering Wheel: Gender and Modernity in France after the Great War." Historian 66(2): 233-253.
	Examines advertisements that depicted women in domestic situations in post-World War I France. Faced with a population decline, French society endorsed a policy that returned women to home and hearth. This discursive view of gender can be seen in advertisements for food products, vacuum cleaners, cameras, cars, and other products. The advertisements stressed the importance of women's maternal and domestic roles while minimizing the "modern" woman's place in postwar France.

Steel, J. M. and F. D. Johnstone (1996). "Guidelines for the management of insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus in pregnancy."  52(1): 60-70.
	The infant of an insulin-dependent diabetic mother is at increased risk of perinatal death, neonatal problems and major congenital malformations. Many of these problems are preventable. All young women with diabetes should receive contraceptive advice and information about pregnancy. The objects of pre-pregnancy care are to assess suitability for pregnancy, to optimise control in early pregnancy and to improve pregnancy outcome through the provision of individualised education and information. Pre-pregnancy care can reduce the congenital malformation rate to approximately that of the nondiabetic. In each area there should be one designated diabetologist and one designated obstetrician who, together with their team, should see all pregnant women in a combined clinic in a hospital with an intensive care baby unit. All pregnant women with diabetes should have 24-hour access to the specialist team. Tight glycaemic control during pregnancy can reduce complications of pregnancy greatly, improving infant mortality and morbidity. Insulin requirements usually change during pregnancy. Education about hypoglycaemia and avoidance of ketoacidosis is essential. Women should have regular examination of the fundi and renal function. They should have ultrasound scanning to assess gestation, to look for abnormalities and to assess fetal growth. Fetal monitoring should be used, particularly for those at high risk. Women with good diabetic control and no complications of diabetes or pregnancy may be delivered at 39 to 40 weeks but those at high risk earlier. During labour or caesarean section blood glucose should be normalised using intravenous glucose and insulin supervised by a specialist team. An experienced paediatrician should be available. Breast feeding should be encouraged.

Stein, A. and C. G. Fairburn (1996). "Eating habits and attitudes in the postpartum period."  58(4): 321-325.
	The object of this study was to examine the changes in women's eating habits and attitudes in the 6 months after childbirth, focusing particularly on eating-disorder psychopathology. A general population sample of 97 primigravid women originally studied during pregnancy were followed for 6 months postpartum to describe their changes in eating and weight after childbirth with particular reference to the behaviors and attitudes characteristic of clinical eating disorders. Assessment was by standardized interview. It was found that eating disorder symptoms increased markedly in the 3 months postpartum and then plateaued over the next 6 months. This overall plateauing masked substantial variation in different domains; in particular, weight concern continued to increase to the 6-month assessment, although shape concern decreased. Concern about residual weight gain after the birth of a child was described by many mothers as particularly distressing and seemed to precipitate a clinical eating disorder in a few cases. Many women would have welcomed educational advice about how to deal with changes in eating, weight, and shape after pregnancy, It was concluded, therefore, that overall, there is evidence of an increase in eating-disorder psychopathology in the 6 months after childbirth, It is argued that education about how to deal with the changes in weight and shape after pregnancy might decrease the risk of developing frank eating disorder psychopathology.

Stein, A., H. Woolley, et al. (1994). "An Observational Study of Mothers with Eating Disorders and Their Infants."  35(4): 733-748.
	Two groups of primiparous mothers and their infants were observed at home during play and at a mealtime when the infants were 12-14 months old. The index group consisted of mothers who had experienced an eating disorder during the postnatal year while the control group had been free from such psychopathology. The main findings were that, when compared to controls, the index mothers were more intrusive with their infants during both mealtimes and play; and that they expressed more negative emotion towards their infants during mealtimes but not during play. There were, however, no differences between the groups in their positive expressed emotion. The index infants' emotional tone was generally more negative and their mealtimes more conflictual compared to controls. Furthermore, the index infants tended to be lighter than controls and infant weight was found to be independently and inversely related to both the amount of conflict during mealtimes and the extent of the mother's concern about her own body shape.

Stein, M. T. (2002). "Failure to thrive in a four-month-old nursing infant." Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics 23(4).
	
Steptoe, A., T. M. Pollard, et al. (1995). "Development of a measure of the motives underlying the selection of food: the food choice questionnaire." Appetite 25(3): 267-84.
	A number of factors are thought to influence people's dietary choices, including health, cost, convenience and taste, but there are no measures that address health-related and non-health-related factors in a systematic fashion. This paper describes the development of a multidimensional measure of motives related to food choice. The Food Choice Questionnaire (FCQ) was developed through factor analysis of responses from a sample of 358 adults ranging in age from 18 to 87 years. Nine factors emerged, and were labelled health, mood, convenience, sensory appeal, natural content, price, weight control, familiarity and ethical concern. The questionnaire structure was verified using confirmatory factor analysis in a second sample (n = 358), and test-retest reliability over a 2- to 3-week period was satisfactory. Convergent validity was investigated by testing associations between FCQ scales and measures of dietary restraint, eating style, the value of health, health locus of control and personality factors. Differences in motives for food choice associated with sex, age and income were found. The potential uses of this measure in health psychology and other areas are discussed.

Stevens, L. M. R. (2002). The joy of text : women's experiential consumption of magazines. Coleraine, University of Ulster
University of Ulster: 1 v.; 31 cm.
	
Stewart-Knox, B., K. Gardiner, et al. (2003). "What is the problem with breast-feeding? A qualitative analysis of infant feeding perceptions." Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics 16(4): 265-273.
	
St-Onge, M., K. L. Keller, et al. (2003). "Changes in childhood food consumption patterns: a cause for concern in light of increasing body weights." American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 78: 1068-1073.
	
Stratton, P. and K. Bromley (1999). "Families' accounts of the causal processes in food choice." Appetite 33: 89-108.
	
Stratton, P. and K. Bromley (1999). "Families’ Accounts of the Causal Processes in Food Choice." Appetite 33(1): 89-108.
	Much of the previous research into the processes involved in food choice has made use of methodologies that neglect the social and familial context in which such decisions are made. The study reported here used a different approach to gather qualitative data from family members regarding their decision processes in the form of naturally expressed social explanations or attributions. Interviews were conducted with 149 family members from a total of 83 British families from four locations. The participants were encouraged to discuss their own personal experience of food choice, including their dietary decisions and behaviours and the factors involved in the process, using systemic interviewing techniques. The 52 h of interview material obtained were subjected to attributional analysis using the Leeds Attributional Coding System (LACS), a qualitative research tool designed for work with families. The data, in the form of 7062 fully coded belief statements or attributions, provided some preliminary observations of the way that families understand and socially explain their food-based decisions. The approach offers a different perspective on family food choice to those provided through more traditional experimental research and surveys.

Studdert, H. (1996). "Her Puddings Bored Her Husband : Advertising and the Construction of Gender in Australian Women's Magazines, 1920-1939." Melbourne Historical Journal 24: 67-86.
	Discusses the notions of gendered behavior and concepts of gender difference expressed in advertisements in women's magazines in Australia between 1920 and 1939.

Studdert, H. G. (1998). "`You're a 100% Feminine if . . .': Gender Constructions in Australian Women's Magazines, 1920-1969." DAI 59(2): 633-A.
	
Sturken, M. (2002). "Masculinity, courage, and sacrifice." SIGNS 28(1): 444-445.
	
Sulimani, R., M. Anani, et al. (1998). "Should diabetic pregnant mothers fast during Ramadan?"  19(1): 50-51.
	Objectives: To study the effects of Ramadan fasting on the control of diabetes in different groups of pregnant diabetic mothers, Design: Prospective study. Setting: Hospital setting, gestational diabetic clinic. Subjects: Forty three Saudi pregnant diabetic mothers were studied. Twenty three patients were on diabetic diet (Group I), 11 patients on 2 injections of regular insulin per day ( Group II) and 12 patients managed with 3 injections of insulin per day (Group III). Measures: Fasting and post prandial blood glucose levels were compared in the patients studied before and during Ramadan. Results: No significant changes occurred in blood glucose levels during Ramadan, In group I post prandial blood glucose levels did actually improve significantly (p< 0.05). None of the patients experienced clinically significant hypoglycemia. Conclusion: Ramadan fasting may be allowed for some pregnant diabetic mothers including those on diet of simple insulin regimens.

Sullenger, T. E. (1960). Neglected Areas in Family Living. Boston, MA, The Christopher Publishing House.
	A reader in 10 Chpts on the neglected areas of family living. After an (1) Introduction, the content is: (2) Criteria of Marital Happiness, (3) Family Rituals, (4) The Family Meal, (5) Household Pets, (6) Family Intra-Communication [conversation, family talks, etc], (7) Family Councils, (8) Role Changing [role conflicts of Coll educated women, culture lag & housewifemanship, etc], (9) Meeting Life Situations - Family Emotional Security [how to live with a woman, should men marry older women? interfaith marriage, Sch-age marriage, etc], & (10) Catastrophic Changes in the Family Cycle. An Index.

Sullivan, G., A. Burnam, et al. "Quality of life of homeless persons with mental illness: results from the course-of-homelessness study."
	OBJECTIVE: The quality of life of homeless persons with mental illness was compared with that of homeless persons without mental illness. METHODS: Subjective and objective quality-of-life ratings were obtained in face-to-face interviews with 1,533 homeless adults in Los Angeles, who were identified using probability sampling of people on the streets and at shelters and meal facilities; 520 subjects were tracked for 15 months. Ratings of homeless persons with and without mental illness were compared using chi square tests and regression analyses. RESULTS: Mentally ill homeless persons were significantly more likely than those without mental illness to receive Supplemental Security Income, Social Security Disability Insurance, Veterans Affairs disability benefits, or Medicaid. However, those with mental illness still fared significantly worse in terms of physical health, level of subsistence needs met, victimization, and subjective quality of life. Differences between groups in the subjective quality-of-life ratings were accounted for by modifiable factors such as income and symptoms rather than by nonmodifiable demographic characteristics. CONCLUSIONS: Interventions most likely to improve the quality of life of homeless persons with mental illness include those that stress maintenance of stable housing and provision of food and clothing and that address physical health problems and train individuals to minimize their risk of victimization. Interventions that decrease depressive symptoms might also improve subjective quality of life.

Sullivan, G., A. Burnam, et al. (2000). "Quality of life of homeless persons with mental illness: results from the course-of-homelessness study." Psychiatric services 51(9): 1135-41.
	OBJECTIVE: The quality of life of homeless persons with mental illness was compared with that of homeless persons without mental illness. METHODS: Subjective and objective quality-of-life ratings were obtained in face-to-face interviews with 1,533 homeless adults in Los Angeles, who were identified using probability sampling of people on the streets and at shelters and meal facilities; 520 subjects were tracked for 15 months. Ratings of homeless persons with and without mental illness were compared using chi square tests and regression analyses. RESULTS: Mentally ill homeless persons were significantly more likely than those without mental illness to receive Supplemental Security Income, Social Security Disability Insurance, Veterans Affairs disability benefits, or Medicaid. However, those with mental illness still fared significantly worse in terms of physical health, level of subsistence needs met, victimization, and subjective quality of life. Differences between groups in the subjective quality-of-life ratings were accounted for by modifiable factors such as income and symptoms rather than by nonmodifiable demographic characteristics. CONCLUSIONS: Interventions most likely to improve the quality of life of homeless persons with mental illness include those that stress maintenance of stable housing and provision of food and clothing and that address physical health problems and train individuals to minimize their risk of victimization. Interventions that decrease depressive symptoms might also improve subjective quality of life.

Sullivan, S. A. and L. L. Birch (1994). "Infant Dietary Experience and Acceptance of Solid Foods."  93(2): 271-277.
	Objective. To examine the effects of dietary experience and milk feeding regimen on acceptance of their first vegetable by 4- to 6-month-old infants. Design. Longitudinal study, of 26-days duration, observing infants aged 4 to 6 months at the start of the study. Random assignment to treatments, within-subject control. Setting. General community in a medium-sized midwestern town. Subjects. Thirty-six infants and their mothers. Subjects were solicited through birth records and advertisements in local newspapers. Interventions. Infants were randomly assigned to be fed one vegetable on 10 occasions, either salted or unsalted peas or green beans, for a 10-day period. Outcome measures. Infant intake of the vegetable consumed during the 10-day exposure period; intake of salted and unsalted versions: (1) before the 10-day exposure period, (2) immediately after the exposure period; and (3) after a 1-week period of delay. Intake of a control food was also measured before and after repeated consumption of the vegetable. Adult ratings of the infants' videotaped responses during test feedings were also obtained before and after the exposure period. Results. After 10 opportunities to consume the vegetable, all infants significantly increased their intake (P < .001). Although they did not differ initially, infants fed breast milk showed greater increases in intake of the vegetable after exposure and had an overall greater level of intake than formula-fed infants. Adult ratings of the infants' nonverbal responses correlated positively with infant intake. Conclusions. Infants increase their acceptance (reflected both in changes in intake and in behavioral response) of a novel food after repeated dietary exposure to that food. Relative to formula-feeding, breast-feeding may facilitate the acceptance of solid foods.

Susin, L. R. O., E. R. J. Giugliani, et al. (2005). "Influence of grandmothers on breastfeeding practice." Revista De Saude Publica 39(2): 141-147.
	
Svedulf, C. I. E., I. L. B. Engberg, et al. (1998). "A comparison of the incidence of breast feeding two and four months after delivery in mothers discharged within 72 hours and after 72 hours post delivery."  14(1): 37-47.
	Objective: to compare breast feeding at two and four months after delivery in mothers discharged early (ED = before 72 hours post delivery) and late (LD = after 72 hours post delivery), and to explore the factors of greatest importance to the successful practice of breast feeding. Design: ex-post facto design. Setting: in the county of Harryda, Sweden. Participants: all Swedish speaking women in the county of Harryda whose babies were born between 01.01.94 and 31.05.94 and who were registered at the Child Health Station (CHS) by the age of three months. One hundred and ninety women were invited to participate and 157 (83%) accepted. Measurements and findings: no significant difference was found in the breast feeding rates between the ED and LD group. However, ED mothers breast fed exclusively to a higher extent at two and at four months (exclusive breast feeding: at two months 89% and 86% respectively, and at four months 84% and 74% respectively, partial breast feeding: at two months 6% and 10% respectively, and at four months 5% and 12% respectively). If the woman considered that she had received encouragement and support while breast feeding for the first time, the probability of her breast feeding at two and at four months were about six times as great (Exp(B) 5.7594, df = l, p = 0.0270; (Exp(B) 5.978 l df = l,p = 0.0005 respectively). Key conclusions: the length of the hospital stay had no significant effect on the incidence of breast feeding at two and four months post delivery. The most predominant factors influencing breast feeding were seen to be the mother's first experience of breast feeding and the degree of support, help and encouragement she received. Less than half of the women received a visit from the CHS nurse after their return home from hospital. Implications for practice: the findings suggest that it is important that the midwife or nurse should prepare, support and encourage the mother when breast feeding for the first time. The midwife's or nurse's interventions are important for the incidence of breast feeding, at least during the first four months, and indirectly affect public health. This must also be taken into consideration when caring for mothers in the delivery ward and before discharge, i.e. that the breast feeding is working well, that the mother experiences it as working well, and also for planning follow-up after discharge.

Swain, S. (1991). "Dear Problem Page, I'm Single Pregnant and . . ." Lilith(7): 100-112.
	Examines self-help columns in Australian women's magazines and concludes that these columns were ineffective advocates for change and that by misinforming petitioners who asked questions about sex and reproduction, women's magazines added to the difficulties of single mothers.

Swanson, V. and K. G. Power (2005). "Initiation and continuation of breastfeeding: theory of planned behaviour." Journal of Advanced Nursing 50(3): 272-282.
	
Sweeting, H. and P. West (2005). "Dietary habits and children's family lives." Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics 18(2): 93-7.
	PURPOSE: To investigate associations between 'less healthy eating' and 'unhealthy snacking' at age 11, and family life (family structure, meals and maternal employment status) together with potential socio-economic confounders and gender. METHODS: Children participated in a school-based survey, questionnaires also being completed by parents. Analyses were based on those with complete data, weighted to account for bias in return of parental questionnaires (N = 2146). Data from a dietary inventory, questions on food choice and snacks were used to classify 'less healthy eating' and 'unhealthy snacking'. RESULTS: Less healthy eating' (57%) and 'unhealthy snacking' (32%) were associated with greater deprivation, fewer maternal qualifications and being male. Compared with children of full-time homemakers, the likelihood of 'less healthy eating' was reduced among those whose mothers worked part-time (this effect remaining after socio-economic adjustment), full-time (effect removed after adjustment), or were unemployed, sick or disabled (effect emerging after adjustment). 'Unhealthy snacking' was not related to maternal employment, and neither measure was associated with family structure or daily meals. CONCLUSIONS: There was no evidence that family structure or meals were associated with children's diets, although maternal employment had a positive association. Contrasting with the size of these effects, relationships between diet and socio-economic status were strong.

Symon, A. G. and W. L. Wrieden (2003). "A qualitative study of pregnant teenagers' perceptions of the acceptability of a nutritional education intervention."  19(2): 140-147.
	Objective: in order to assess the feasibility of nutritional education intervention sessions for pregnant teenagers, standard dietary assessment schedules were supplemented by a qualitative appraisal. Reported in this paper are the perceptions of pregnant teenagers who attended one or more of these sessions. Design: qualitative study using a phenomenological approach. Data were collected using semi-structured tape-recorded group interviews. Setting: two community centres and one maternity unit in Tayside, Scotland. Participants: ten pregnant teenagers aged 16-18 years. Interventions: all had attended one or more of a series of food preparation sessions led by a midwife. Food to take away was provided, as were supermarket vouchers. Findings: those who attended found the sessions to be social, educational, and practical. These young women appreciated being in a group which did not include 'older' pregnant women. To a limited extent they had changed their dietary habits at home. Food to take home was a significant attraction. Some of the teenagers sought maternity-related information from the midwife leading the session. Key conclusions: nutritional education remains an important public health issue. Despite offering a range of incentives, attracting teenagers to these sessions was difficult, making their economic feasibility questionable. Implications for practice: with better recruitment, such sessions could form an important part of improving nutrition and overall health for current and future generations. (C) 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Szreter, S. (2002). "The state of social capital: bringing back in power, politics and history,." Theory and Society 31:: 573-621,.
	
Taanila, A., P. Larivaara, et al. (2002). "Evaluation of a family-oriented continuing medical education course for general practitioners." Medical Education 36(3): 248-257.
	Objective To explore the long-term effects of a 2-year Family Systems Medicine course. Fifteen experienced GPs participated in the training programme. Setting Continuing Education Centre, University of Tampere, Department of Public Health Science and General Practice, University of Oulu, Finland. Methods The participants assessed the development of their professional skills on the Doherty-Baird scale and filled in 2 questionnaires. The material obtained from the application form and 2 questionnaires was analysed using the grounded theory method. Results The reasons for taking part in the course seemed to be the constant increase in the workload, problems caused by the demands for change and adaptation, stress and exhaustion. Furthermore, 10 health centres out of 15 had adopted the population-based practice, which requires different working methods compared to the old routines. Some trainees reported that their family-centred working methods improved during the course. A year after the end of the training, all of the GPs who had participated were using such methods in their daily practice. Half of the participants felt that they had also improved the functioning of their working group by making it more family-oriented. The significance of multiprofessional collaboration was one of the most important insights during the course. Conclusion The 2-year family-oriented training programme provided GPs with systemic thinking and with new skills, including the ability to work with families. The programme raised awareness of the need for multiprofessional collaboration in the primary care sittings

Talbot, M. (2003). "Gender in interaction: Perspectives on femininity and masculinity in ethnography and discourse." JOURNAL OF PRAGMATICS 35(10-11): 1733-1735.
	
Tamari, T. (2002). Women and consumption : the rise of the department store and the #new woman' in Japan 1900-1930. Nottingham, Nottingham Trent University.
	
Tapias, M. (2006). "'Always Ready and Always Clean'?: Competing Discourses of Breast-feeding, Infant Illness and the Politics of Mother-blame in Bolivia." Body Society %R 10.1177/1357034X06064324 12(2): 83-108.
	In this article I explore the multiple and at times conflicting public health and folk discourses which shape breast-feeding practices in Punata, Bolivia. I examine why women may cease to breast-feed despite active efforts made by the healthcare system to promote breast-feeding. Breast-feeding practices are saturated with meaning and circumscribed by time and economic constraints as well as numerous cultural factors. These include conceptualizations of the body, emotions and illnesses that affect infants who are breast-fed, as well as constructions of the mother-infant bond and attitudes about what constitutes good mothering' and its relationship to gender and class expectations. In this locality, the emotions of lactating women are said to find release through their breast milk and are seen to cause illness in their breast-feeding infants. I explore how mothers accepted, challenged or contested such views, and how they negotiated the politics of blame that emerged regarding who was at fault for their infant's illnesses. I demonstrate how breast-feeding is an embodied experience intrinsically linked to ideas about motherhood and show how the deployment of blame for these illnesses can strategically obfuscate or shed light on the numerous social and economic constraints under which women may find themselves.

Tardy, R. W. and C. L. Hale (1998). "Bonding and cracking: The role of informal, interpersonal networks in health care decision making."  10(2): 151-173.
	This study examined the role and impact of informal, interpersonal networks in health care decision making. Questioning the traditional approach to studying health communication as it is situated within institutions (e.g., Burgeon, 1992; Nussbaum, 1989; Pettegrew & Logan, 1987), this ethnographic study ventured into the lived experiences of women in a mothers' and toddlers' playgroup as they discussed their own, their family members', and their friends' health experiences. Their conversations revolved around such health-related issues as pregnancy and delivery, physicians and hospitals, breastfeeding, illnesses and accidents, and diet and nutrition. The conversations were found to serve not necessarily opposing but distinctive functions including a rather practical purpose of "cracking the code" of institutional practices, as well as a "bonding" function evidenced through stories or narratives. The conversations are not only exchanges of information but also narratives through which shared experiences are created and maintained. In addition to these narrative functions, examination of these conversations reveals how diagnoses and remedies from the institutions are discussed and decisions are made. The conclusion offers ideas for how agencies and institutions can utilize the findings of this particular research venture.

Tarkka, M. T., M. Paunonen, et al. (1999). "Factors related to successful breast feeding by first-time mothers when the child is 3 months old."  29(1): 113-118.
	The aim of the reported study was to gain information on those factors which contribute to the success of breast feeding in first-time mothers when the child is 3 months old. The study is part of a wider longitudinal project which follows-up the growth to motherhood of first-time mothers in Finland over a period of 8 months postpartum. Data collection was by questionnaires distributed between March and September 1995. The sample comprised 271 first-time mothers. The mothers completed the questionnaires when their infants were 3<SUP></SUP> months old. the analysis applied was a polychotomic logistic regression analysis. When the child was 3 months old those mothers who perceived themselves competent as mothers and who felt that society appreciated motherhood appropriately coped better with breast feeding. Also, those mothers who had worked at home prior to the birth of the child and who felt that breast feeding was important in motherhood coped better with breast feeding. Those mothers whose state of mind was more balanced after the birth coped better with breast feeding. The more affirmation the mother received from members of her social network the better she coped with breast feeding. The research findings suggest that factors influencing successful breast feeding in first-time mothers at 3 months post-partum are the mother's own resources and attitude to breast feeding, support from the social network and the current appreciation of breast feeding in society.

Taub, D. E. (2005). "Revolting Bodies?: The Struggle to Redefine Fat Identity." Contemporary Sociology: A Journal of Reviews 34(6): 677-679.
	
Taylor, L. J., M. Gallagher, et al. (2004). "The role of parental influence and additional factors in the determination of food choices for pre-school children." International Journal of Consumer Studies 28(4): 337-346.
	
Tchibindat, F., Y. Martin-Prevel, et al. (2004). "Bringing together viewpoints of mothers and health workers to enhance monitoring and promotion of growth and development of children: A case study from the Republic of Congo."  22(1): 59-67.
	In 1996, the Government of the Republic of Congo launched a pilot project to improve the child Growth and development component of primary healthcare. The present study was carried out (i) to explore perceptions and practices of mothers and health workers regarding child growth, health, and development, and (ii) to design culturally-appropriate tools to enhance their monitoring and promotion. The study was carried out in two randomly-selected health centres in Brazzaville. Qualitative data collected included 16 focus-group discussions with 174 mothers, two focus-group discussions with 18 health workers, and 20 individual interviews with paediatricians or psychologists. The health workers reported that the main indicator of child growth was weight, while the mothers used broader concepts for evaluating growth and development of their toddlers. A strategy encompassing anthropometrics, developmental milestones, and acquisition of social skills was elaborated to enhance communication between health workers and mothers. Anew growth chart was designed, and a new calendar of systematic visits, including key tasks and messages, was established. However, these new tools derived from the formative research still need to be carefully tested.

Teasley, S. (2005). "Home-Builder or Home-Maker? Reader Presence in Articles on Home-Building in Commercial Women's Magazines in 1920's Japan." Journal of Design History 18(1): 81-97.
	
Thaisz, E., A. Rappai, et al. (1993). "Screening and Care of Gestational and Insulin-Dependent Diabetic Pregnancies - the 1st 4 Years Experience."  6(6): 373-375.
	In accordance with the St. Vincent Declaration we aimed to achieve similar outcome of pregnancies in diabetic and healthy women with a team work frame. We have been screening for gestational diabetes in all pregnant women referred to our patient clinic since January 1989. A test break fast containing 75 g of carbohydrate is administered and the 2-hr post prandial blood glucose determined; 124 cases were identified as gestational diabetes out of 4676 pregnancies (2.67%). All gestational diabetics were registered immediately. Normoglycaemia (HbA1c: 5.4+/-0.4%) was achieved in all cases either by dietetic measures (56%) or by insulin administration. Prematurity rate was 3.75% (under 10 percentile). Neither malformations nor significant fetopathies were observed. Rate of macrosomia was 9.6%. During this observation period 38 pregnancies of IDDM women were also treated by at least 4 insulin injections daily. No malformations were observed in these cases. Two pregnancies were interrupted due to missed abortion and one because of placenta previa. Macrosomia was observed in 10.5% of cases. The HbA1c values were 6.07+/-0.90%. This screening and treatment method seems to meet international standards and could be adapted nationwide.

Thomas, N. (2001). Listening to Children. Children in Society - Contemporary Theory, Policy and Practice. P. Foley, J. Roche and S. Tucker. Basingstoke, Palgrave: 104-111.
	
Thomas, P., L. Oni, et al. (2005). "Antenatal screening for haemoglobinopathies in primary care: a whole system participatory action research project."  55(515): 424-428.
	Background The usual system for antenatal screening for haemoglobinopathies permits termination only late in the second trimester of pregnancy. Aim To evaluate a system where pregnant women are screened in general practice, and to develop a model of care pathway or whole system research able to bring into view unexpected effects of health service innovation. Design of study A whole system participatory action research approach was used. Six purposefully chosen general practices screened women who attended with a new pregnancy. Data of gestational age of screening were compared with two control groups. Qualitative data were gathered through workshops, interviews and feedback to the project steering group. At facilitated annual workshops participants from all parts of the care pathway produced a consensus about the meaning of the data as a whole. Setting Six general practices in north London. Method A whole system participatory action research approach allowed stakeholders from throughout the care pathway to pilot the innovation and reflect on the meaning and significance of quantitative and qualitative data. Results The gestational age of screening in general practice was 4.1 weeks earlier (95% confidence interval (CI) = 3.41 to 4.68) than in hospital clinics (P<0.001), and 2.9 weeks earlier (95% Cl = 2.07 to 3.65) than in community midwife clinics (P<0.001). However, only 35% of pregnant women in the study were screened in the practices. Changes required throughout the whole care pathway make wider implementation more difficult than at first realised. The cost within general practice is greater than initially appreciated owing to a perceived need to provide counselling about other issues at the same time. Practitioners considered that other ways of early screening should be explored, including preconceptual screening. The research approach was able to bring into view unexpected effects of the innovation, but health workers were unfamiliar with the participatory processes. Conclusion Antenatal screening for haemoglobinopathies in general practice lowers the gestational age at which an at-risk pregnancy can be identified. However, widespread implementation of such screening may be too difficult.

Thompson, L. S. and M. Story (X2003). "Perceptions of overweight and obesity in their community: findings from focus groups with urban, African-American caretakers of preschool children." Journal of National Black Nurses' Association 14(1): 28-37.
	Focus groups were conducted with parents, other caretakers, and teachers of urban, African American preschool children attending Head Start. The research goal, congruent with the concept of cultural humility, was to elicit target population members' perspectives on the nature, importance, prevalence, and causes of overweight and obesity in their community, with an emphasis on childhood obesity. Themes that emerged revealed that participants defined obesity as a more extreme state than the medical definition, these same participants had a complex view of the relationships of weight and health, stressed numerous environmental factors contributing to obesity. Moreover, these participants tended to offer suggestions for health professionals and those designing nutrition education interventions.

Thompson, P. (1975). The Edwardians: The Remaking of British Society. London, Routledge.
	
Thompson, P. (1998). 'Living Together'. The Century Speaks: BBC Millennium Oral History Project Research Guide. London, British Library Board.
	
Thomson, R., Plumridge, L. & Holland, J. (2003). "Longitudinal qualitative research: a developing methodology." International Journal of Social Research Methodology 6(3): 185-187.
	
Thomson, R. and J. Holland (2003). "Hindsight, foresight and insight: the challenges of longitudinal qualitative research." International Journal of Social Research Methodology 6(3): 233-244.
	
Thoyre, S. M. and R. L. Brown (2004). "Factors contributing to preterm infant engagement during bottle-feeding."  53(5): 304-313.
	Background: Preterm infants have difficulty maintaining engagement throughout early oral feedings, which can lead to less efficient feeding and prolonged feeding skill development. Objective: To examine contributions of the infant, mother, and feeding context to infant engagement during bottle-feeding. Methods: Bottle-feedings of very-low-birthweight infants (n = 22) by their mothers were observed. Infant and maternal behaviors were coded and synchronized with physiologic measures, At completion of the feeding, the mothers were interviewed, and their working model of feeding coregulation was scored. Feedings were subdivided into feeding episodes (n = 114). Using multilevel linear regression analyses, four dyadic characteristics (working model of the caregiver's role as coregulator, birthweight, postconceptional age, baseline oxygen saturation) and five episode characteristics (readiness at episode onset, episode baseline oxygen saturation, mean oxygen saturation during the episode, maternal feeding behavior, and phase of feeding) were examined as potential predictors of feeding episode engagement. Results: Conditions observed during the feeding observation explained most of the variation in engagement. Engagement was more likely to occur during the early phase of feeding (p < .05), during feeding episodes that began with infant readiness (p < .05), and during feeding episodes with higher mean oxygen saturation during the episode (p < .05). Feeding episodes with less jiggling of the nipple had a significantly greater amount of engagement (p < .05). Conclusions: The ability of the preterm infant to maintain engagement during bottle-feeding cannot be explained by characteristics of the infant or by the prefeeding condition of the infant alone. Rather, engagement is coregulated by the caregiver and the infant throughout the feeding. Strategies to assist infants in maintaining physiologic stability during bottle-feeding and further study of effective and contingent caregiver feeding behaviors are needed.

Tiggermann, M. (2004). "Body image across the adult life span: stability and change." Body Image 1: 29-41.
	
Tinkler, P. Constructing Girlhood: Popular Magazines for Girls Growing Up in England, 1920-50 (Gender & Society S.: Feminist Perspectives on the Past & Present)  
	
Tinkler, P. (2001). "Rebellion, Modernity, and Romance: Smoking as a Gendered Practice in Popular Young Women's Magazines, Britain 1918-1939." Women's Studies International Forum 24(1): 111-122.
	In Britain, the feminization of the cigarette is a 20th-century phenomenon. Prior to 1900 few women smoked, but during the 1920's and 1930's smoking among women increased dramatically. Set in the context of the increased prevalence of smoking among women during the interwar years and negotiations around the meanings of gender and gender relations in this period, this article examines some of the ways in which popular young women's magazines represented smoking as a gendered practice. A study of the fiction and illustrations featured in popular magazines, as well as articles and advertisements, reveals that representations of women smoking were employed in the interwar years to convey and develop key gender issues: rebellion, modernity, and heterosexual intimacy.

Tinkler, P. (2001). "Red Tips for Hot Lips : Advertising Cigarettes for Young Women in Britain, 1920-70." Women's History Review 10(2): 249-272.
	The girl or woman smoker is a 20th-century phenomenon. In 1900, smoking was invariably associated with sexually deviant womanhood. Today, smoking is firmly, if contentiously, established as a feminine practice in British society. This article examines one aspect of the 20th-century feminization of smoking in Britain, namely, the ways in which smoking practices have been presented as appropriate for young women in the period 1920-70. Advertisements featured in magazines for young women aged 15-29 years have been chosen as a particularly apt medium through which to explore some of the ways in which cigarettes and smoking practices have been delineated and infused with meaning. These advertisements constituted a discourse for the circulation of messages about the relationship of women to cigarettes. Findings reveal a number of shifts in cigarette advertisements featured in women's magazines from 1920 to 1970. First, during the 1930's and early 1940's, advertisements were, in contrast to later counterparts, preoccupied with establishing smoking as a feminine practice. Key to processes by which smoking was feminized were various mechanisms whereby the cigarette was depicted as part of the presentation of a heterosexual identity and where smoking practices were embedded in heterosexual relations and rituals. Second, there was a discernible shift in the way women were addressed by advertisements, from potential women smokers in the 1930's to more general consumers in the 1960's. Third and relatedly, the significance attached to women smoking changed between 1920 and 1970. In the 1930's, smoking was utilized to signify that women were "modern"; in the period 1960-70, smoking served to indicate that women were recognized, and accorded status, as consumers.

Tinkler, P. (2003). "Refinement and Respectable Consumption: the Acceptable Face of Women's Smoking in Britain, 1918-1970." Gender & History 15(2): 342-360.
	After World War I, cigarette smoking became a defining feature of modernity for middle-class and upper-working-class young women in England. By the late 1930's, smoking had become more widespread among working-class women, for whom it initially had been associated with prostitution. In women's magazines, the clothing and body type of the woman smoker identified her as respectable or not.

Toerien, M. and K. Durrheim (2001). "Power Through Knowledge: Ignorance and the 'Real Man'." Feminism and Psychology 11(1): 35-54.
	
Tolson, A. (1977). The limits of masculinity. London, Tavistock Publications.
	
Toma, T. S. and C. A. Monteiro (2001). "Assessment of the promotion of breastfeeding in public and private maternities, Brazil."  35(5): 409-414.
	Objective The World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) carried out a study to compare and evaluate the practices of protecting, promoting and supporting breastfeeding in public and private hospitals using the "ten steps" of the Hospital Initiative (BFHI) as it reference parameter Methods Forty-five hospitals of the municipality of Sao Paulo participated in the study. Data on the practices of infant feeding were collected by interviewing nurseries' supervisors of all public, hospitals (26). it random sample of private hospitals (19), corresponding to a third of the total, during the Years 1996-1997. Results More than a quarter of the public hospitals and more than one third of the private hospitals did not comply, with any of the BFHI steps. Seven of the "ten steps " were observed in only two public hospitals. In general. practices of protection, promotion, and support of breastfeeding were seen at a higher frequency in public hospitals. Conclusions The present study, shows that practices considered detrimental to the onset and progressing of breastfeeding - unnecessary separation of the mother and her newborn, restrictions regarding the length of time and frequency breastfeeding, use of pre-lacteal foods and supplements - are still quite frequently observed in public and private hospitals within the city of Sao Paulo, Given the benefits of breastfeeding for both the mother's and their children's health, and the important role maternities play for an it is paramount that the BFHI patterns be adopted by hospitals within th municipality Sao Paulo.

Tomanovic, S. (2004). "Family Habitus as the Cultural Context for Childhood." Childhood 11(3): 339-360.
	The article is based on a longitudinal qualitative study carried out by the author on children and their families in two areas of Belgrade (Serbia) in
1993–4 and 2000. Its goal is to provide an insight into how everyday life is structured and constructed for children by their family habitus. There are significant distinctions in how families from different social strata use their resources and thereby provide different cultural contexts for children. The main conclusion is that family habitus has a strong influence on allocation, distribution and the use of family resources and thereby structures the everyday life of children. At the same time, it activates different kinds of capital for (and by) children and thereby constructs different childhood practices.

Tosh, J. (1994). What should historians do with masculinity? : reflections on nineteenth-century Britain.
	
Touchette, E., D. Petit, et al. (2005). "Factors associated with fragmented sleep at night across early childhood." Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 159(3): 242-249.
	
Traustadottir, R. (1991). "Mothers Who Care. Gender, Disability, and Family Life,." Journal of Family Issues 12(2): 211-228.
	
Tronto, J. (1993). Moral Boundaries:. London, Routledge.
	
Tubbs, C. Y., K. M. Roy, et al. (2005). "Family Ties: Constructing Family Time in Low-Income Families."
	"Family time" is reflected in the process of building & fortifying family relationships. Whereas such time, free of obligatory work, school, & family maintenance activities, is purchased by many families using discretionary income, we explore how low-income mothers make time for & give meaning to focused engagement & relationship development with their children within time constraints idiosyncratic to being poor & relying on welfare. Longitudinal ethnographic data from 61 low-income African American, European American, & Latina American mothers were analyzed to understand how mothers construct family time during daily activities such as talking, play, & meals. We also identify unique cultural factors that shape family time for low-income families, such as changing temporal orientations, centrality of television time, & emotional burdens due to poverty. Implications for family therapy are also discussed. 61 References. Adapted from the source document.

Turnbull, A. (1994). "An Isolated Missionary: the Domestic Subjects Teacher in England, 1870-1914." Women's History Review 3(1): 81-100.
	Establishment of the National Training School for Cookery in 1873 was part of a campaign to raise the status of women's skills such as cooking that were taken for granted. Northern cooking schools formed the Northern Union of Schools of Cookery, later the National Union for the Technical Education of Women in the Domestic Sciences (1899), after the Ministry of Education rebuffed proposals to set standards for the training of domestic subjects teachers and school facilities for teaching. Without recognition by the ministry similar to that elementary school teachers received, domestic subjects teachers, though often of middle-class background, had less status and lower wages than working-class elementary teachers.

Turrell, G., B. Hewitt, et al. (2002). "Socioeconomic differences in food purchasing and suggested implications for diet-related helth promotion." Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics 15: 355-364.
	
Ukwuani, F. A., C. M. Suchindran, et al. (2001). "Influences of mother's work, childhood place of residence, and exposure to media on breast-feeding patterns: Experience of Nigeria and Uganda."  48(1-2): 1-20.
	This study uses data from the Nigerian Demographic and Health Survey collected in 1990 and the Ugandan Demographic and Health Survey collected in 1995 to examine the implications of mother's work, childhood place of residence, and exposure to the media for breast-feeding patterns (exclusivity and intensity) in Nigeria and Uganda. Nigeria and Uganda present an interesting contrast because Nigeria is more modernized and economically developed than Uganda, thus providing a good indication of the influence of modernization on breast-feeding patterns. Mother's work status is defined by considering whether mothers earned cash from work and took their children to work, hence emphasizing the compatibility of work with child care. Work least compatible with child care had a negative effect on breast-feeding intensity in Nigeria. The negative effect of mother's work on exclusive breast-feeding (that is, if the mothers used formula or milk instead) observed for some working mothers in Nigeria and Uganda was partly confounded by urban residence, exposure to media, and other socioeconomic factors. Mother's work did not have a negative effect on breast-feeding intensity in Uganda. The relationship between mother's work, urban residence, media exposure, and breast-feeding practice seems to be stronger in Nigeria than Uganda.

Valentine, G. (1997). "'My Son's a Bit Dizzy.' 'My Wife's a Bit Soft': gender, children and cultures of parenting." Gender, Place and Culture 4(1): 37-62.
	
Valentine, G. (1999). "A corporeal geography of consumption." Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 17(3): 329-351.
	In this paper I outline a corporeal geography of consumption. By using the example of food I explore how our bodies are linked to wider consumption spaces and the ways that they are inflected by these socio-spatial relations. Although discourses around eating in western cultures tend to privilege self-discipline, there are other meanings around food that emphasise its pleasurable qualities. Because our bodies are a product of the complex interaction of different discourses, social relations, and practices constituted in relation to wider locations, including other bodies, the home, and the workplace, these constellations of relationships do not always serve to produce our bodies in a coherent way. I therefore explore some of the tensions and conflicts individuals experience between different discourses around food, bodily ideals, and sets of regulatory practices in different locations. In doing so I consider the extent to which individuals produce the space of their bodies in accordance with the disciplinary gaze of others rather than their own desires. I suggest that close spatial proximity to others can result in the erosion of individuals' body boundaries, and argue that the lack of corporeal freedom experienced by those interviewed highlights the limitations of public information and discourses about healthy eating, which are usually targeted at individuals and assume individualised patterns of consumption, rather than recognising the way that food consumption is often a shared activity and that bodily practices are therefore inflected by wider socio-spatial relations.

Valentine, G. (1999). "Doing household research: interviewing couples together and apart." Area 31(1): 67-74.
	The question of whether household members should be interviewed together or apart is hotly debated in 'family' studies. In this paper, I use my own experiences of both methods of interviewing in order to explore some of the practical problems, ethical issues and power dynamics of conducting household research, and to demonstrate how a household focus can contribute to the understanding of gender relations.

Valentine, G. (1999). "Eating in: home, consumption and identity." SOCIOLOGICAL REVIEW 47(3): 491-524.
	Food is perhaps one of the most mundane and taken for granted parts of our everyday life, yet the ways we think about shopping, cooking and eating are actually intensively reflexive. This paper uses the example of food to explore questions of identity in relation to the specific cultural location of 'the home'. Using case study examples the paper illustrates some of the complex ways in which identities, throughout the lifecourse, are produced, articulated and contested through food consumption and the spatial dynamics of cooking and eating. In doing so the paper demonstrates that households, rather than being single units of food consumption, can be sites of multiple and sometimes contradictory consumption practices and that it is necessary to understand how patterns of eating are negotiated and contested within households in order to understand how the home functions as a 'consumption site'

Valentine, G. (1999). "Eating in: home, consumption and identity." The Sociological Review 47(3): 491-524.
	
Valentine, G. (1999). "Eating in: home, consumption and identity." The Sociological Review: 491-525.
	
Valentine, G. (2000). "Exploring children and young people's narratives of identity." Geoforum 31(2): 257-267.
	In this paper I begin by considering the way that children are located in narratives of identity not of their own making. Specifically, I argue that in twentieth century Britain, children have been defined in opposition to adults. This compartmentalisation of childhood as a separate category from adulthood is reinforced by the contemporary process of familialisation. I then go on to consider the way that children are also increasingly being located within narratives of individualisation, being confronted with many of the same choices as adults while also facing similar risks of marginalisation through their choices. Using the example of adult-child relationships at school break time, I examine how as a result of this process of individualisation the category child/youth is dissolving into adulthood and erasing relationships between childhood and adulthood based purely on hierarchy and deference. In producing their own narrative of the self, I argue that young people increasingly have to learn to negotiate this ambiguity if they are to position themselves correctly within adult and peer cultures. In particular, it is within the context of peer group culture that young people have to learn how to articulate their individuality while at the same time conforming with peer group identities which are highly embodied and are predicated on adult notions of heterosexualised gender identities.

Valentine, G. and B. Longstaff (1998). "Doing porridge - Food and social relations in a male prison." Journal of Material Culture 3(2): 131-152.
	This article explores the meanings and use of food in the institutional setting of a male prison. In an environment where men have limited access to money or material goods, food assumes immense value. It has important symbolic associations for inmates in terms of 'home' and 'identity' while particular foodstuffs can be reworked to be employed in diverse ways within prison gym cultures, drug cultures and so on. Thus because food is a meaningful and useful commodity within the prison it has important exchange value, being traded both in its own right but also as a currency to purchase other more precious commodities. This in turn means that it is a source of conflict between individuals and between groups of inmates within prisons. The article therefore concludes by focusing on the role of food in the complex negotiation of power relations between inmates and staff, and between individuals and groups of inmates.

Van Esterik, P. (1989). Motherpower and Infant feeding. London, Zed Books.
	
Van Esterik, P. (2002). "Contemporary trends in infant feeding research." Annual Review of Anthropology 31: 257-278.
	
VanEvery, J. (1997). "Understanding Gendered Inequality: Reconceptualizing Housework." Women's Studies International Forum 20(3): 411-420.
	
Vannotti, M. and C. Morier-Genoud (2003). "Domestic violence: a family systemic approach." Medecine et Hygiene 61(2457): 2154-2158.
	Domestic violence is a major problem in society because of its frequency. A family systems approach tries to explain the complex genesis of violent behaviours in families. It underlines relational particularities in the emergence of a violent behaviour towards minors and intimate partners. One can make these behaviour interpretations by referring either to a circular logic or a linear logic. The authors aim at showing that the interactive aspect of violent behaviours does not reduce in any way the responsibility of the author of violence, who transgresses the law and denies the humanity of his victim. Following this perspective, the understanding of the complex nature of the phenomenon can help the physician to detect, prevent and protect the victims of violence. Finally, the authors stress the medical responsibility in relation to domestic violence

Vannuchi, M. T. O., C. A. Monteiro, et al. (2004). "The baby-friendly hospital initiative and breastfeeding in a neonatal unit." Revista De Saude Publica 38(3): 422-428.
	
Variyam, J. N. and J. Blaylock (1998). "Unlocking the mystery between nutrition knowledge and diet quality." Food Review May-August: 21-28.
	
Variyam, J. N., J. Blaylock, et al. (1999). "Mother's nutrition knowledge and children's dietary intakes." American Journal of Agricultural Economics 81: 373-384.
	
Varty, A. (1999). Eve's century : a sourcebook of writings on women and journalism 1895-1950. London, Routledge.
	
Vereecken, C., Maes, L (2003). "A Belgian study on the reliability and relative validity of the Health Behaviour in School-Aged Children food-frequency questionnaire." PUBLIC HEALTH NUTRITION 6(6): 581-588.
	Objective: In the Health Behaviour in School-Aged Children (HBSC) survey, the frequency of consumption of a limited number of food items - focusing on fibre, calcium and less healthy items - is queried using a 15-item food-frequency questionnaire (FFQ). The present study was conducted to assess the reliability and relative validity of the HBSC FFQ among school pupils in Belgium.
   Design and subjects: To assess the reliability of the FFQ, 207 pupils aged 11 - 12 years and 560 pupils aged 13-14 years completed the questionnaire twice, with a test-retest interval of 6 to 15 days. To assess the relative validity of the FFQ, in a first study data were collected as part of the Flemish HBSC 2000 survey: 7072 pupils (11-18 years) completed the FFQ and a 24-hour food behaviour checklist (FBC). In a second study, 101 pupils (11-12 years) completed the FFQ and a 7-day food diary (FD).
   Results: Reliability - weighted kappa values between test and retest ranged from 0.43 to 0.70, percentage agreement from 37 to 87%, and Spearman correlations from 0.52 to 0.82. Relative validity - comparison of the FBC with the percentage of respondents who should have consumed the food items on a random day, computed from the FFQ showed good agreement between the FFQ and the FBC for most items. Only for cereals, diet soft drinks and other milk products were considerably higher food frequencies than expected found from the FBC. Comparison of the FFQ with the FD showed overestimation for all but three food items (cheese, soft drinks and chips). Spearman correlations ranged between 0.10 for crisps and 0.65 for semi-skimmed milk.
   Conclusion: The HBSC FFQ is a reliable questionnaire that can be used for ranking subjects for most food items, although one must consider the overestimation when the FFQ is used for estimating prevalences.

Vickers, M. H., B. H. Breier, et al. (2003). "Sedentary behavior during postnatal life is determined by the prenatal environment and exacerbated by postnatal hypercaloric nutrition."  285(1): R271-R273.
	The discovery of a link between in utero experience and later metabolic and cardiovascular disease is one of the most important advances in epidemiology research of recent years. There is now increasing evidence that alterations in the fetal environment have long-term consequences on metabolic and endocrine pathophysiology in adult life. This process has been termed "fetal programming," and we have shown that undernutrition of the mother during gestation leads to obesity, hypertension, hyperphagia, hyperinsulinemia, and hyperleptinemia in offspring. Using this model of maternal undernutrition throughout pregnancy, we investigated whether prenatal influences may lead to alterations in postnatal locomotor behavior, independent of postnatal nutrition. Virgin Wistar rats were time mated and randomly assigned to receive food either ad libitum (ad libitum group) or at 30% of ad libitum intake (undernourished group). Offspring from UN mothers were significantly smaller at birth than AD offspring. At weaning, offspring were assigned to one of two diets [ control or hypercaloric (30% fat)]. At ages of 35 days, 145 days, and 420 days, voluntary locomotor activity was assessed. At all ages studied, offspring from undernourished mothers were significantly less active than offspring born of normal birth weight for all parameters measured, independent of postnatal nutrition. Sedentary behavior in programmed offspring was exacerbated by postnatal hypercaloric nutrition. This work is the first to clearly separate prenatal from postnatal effects and shows that lifestyle choices themselves may have a prenatal origin. We have shown that predispositions to obesity, altered eating behavior, and sedentary activity are linked and occur independently of postnatal hypercaloric nutrition. Moreover, the prenatal influence may be permanent as offspring of undernourished mothers were still significantly less active compared with normal offspring at an advanced adult age, even in the presence of a healthy diet throughout postnatal life.

Videon, T. M. and C. K. Manning (2003). "Influences on adolescent eating patterns: the importance of family meals." Journal of Adolescent Health 32: 365-373.
	
Vila, G., J. J. Robert, et al. (1997). "Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus in childhood and adolescence: A pedopsychiatric follow-up."  4(7): 615-622.
	To assess the type of mental disorders met in the medical follow-up of insulin-dependent diabetic children (IDDM) and adolescents and their relationships with metabolic control (HbAlC) in young IDDM patients who consult in a department of child psychiatry. Population and methods. - Twenty boys and 37 girls (mean age: 14.7 +/- 4.1 years and mean duration of IDDM: 5.6 +/- 4.3 years were followed during 1 year by the same child psychiatrist (mean duration of follow-up: 22 months). They were assessed with several clinical interviews (mean: three by subject); mental disorders were classified according to the criteria of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, third edition revised (DSM III-R). Results. - The study showed the importance of emotional disorders, 30 patients presenting at least an anxiety disorder and 17 an affective disorder, 11 a major depressive disorder and eight a dysthymic disorder. The most frequent anxiety disorders were phobias and overanxious disorders. Two patients had an anorexia nervosa, one a bulimia nervosa and nine an eating disorder nor otherwise specified. There were ten diagnoses of disruptive behaviour disorders, one toxic substance abuse and II adaptation disorders. Seven subjects had a reading and writing learning disorder, three a coordination disorder and three a borderline IQ, Familial factors seemed very important. Nine patients had a parent-child problem, four sibling rivalry disorder and two an attachment disorder. Family problems (conflicts, separations, economical difficulties...) were found in 63% of cases. The mother or the father had mental disorders in 24 cases (42%). The diabetic patients with mental disorders had poor metabolic control (HbAlC = 9.9 +/- 2.4%) and ten subjects (18%) had already somatic complications. Some mental disorders were significantly associated with high HbAlC. The poorer metabolic controls were observed for eating disorders. Somatic complications were associated only with IDDM duration. Conclusions. - This study shows the presence of typical DSM III-R menial disorders in IDDM children and adolescents, principally emotional disorders, and their association with a higher somatic risk, maximum for eating disorders. It shows the interest of collaboration between diabetologist and child psychiatrist. The exact prevalence of these disorders should be assessed by epidemiological studies.

Vittoz, J. P., J. Labarere, et al. (2004). "Effect of a training program for maternity ward professionals on duration of breastfeeding." Birth-Issues in Perinatal Care 31(4): 302-307.
	
W.A., F. G. I. J. d. G. C. M. S. v. S. (1998). "Food Choice and Fat Intake of Adolescents and Adults: Associations of Intakes within Social Networks." Preventive Medicine 27(5): 645-656.
	Background. Influences of the social environment are important in determining eating behavior. Family influences have been demonstrated by resemblances in intakes within families, but research on resemblance in intake between friends is lacking. We investigated the resemblance in fat and food intake within social networks that included family members and peers.
Methods. Fat consumption was assessed with a food frequency questionnaire in 361 social networks consisting of 15-year-old adolescents (n = 347), their mothers (n = 309), their fathers (n = 270), their friends (n = 240), 79 friends of mothers, and 29 friends of fathers. Ten family interviews and four focus group interviews were carried out in a subsample.
Results. Within the nuclear family, the intake of 76 to 94% of the foods was significantly associated, which resulted in moderate Pearson correlations for fat and fatty acid intake (% of energy intake) between parents (0.30-0.34), between mother and child (0.19-0.38), and between father and child (0.16-0.26). No significant correlations for fat intake were found between friends, but the consumption of specific foods was related.
Conclusions. We found clear resemblance in habitual fat and food intake between parents and their adolescent children and between spouses. Friends do not seem to have a lot of influence on the fat intake of adolescents and adults in this population.

Wærdahl, R. (2005). "‘Maybe I’ll need a pair of Levi’s before junior high?’ Child to Youth Trajectories and Anticipatory Socialization." Childhood 12(2): 201-219.
	Changing schools at the age of 12 also represents a change in social age identity. Children prepare for this change of age identity in different ways, and their strategies vary across sociocultural contexts as well as between individuals. In this article, some of these strategies are explored through ethnographic observation and interviews with Norwegian 12- year-olds preparing and anticipating a change of school, making use of Robert Merton’s concept of ‘anticipatory socialization’. Merton’s concept describes the building of personal abilities, alienation from one’s former group and adaptation to new norms as social processes identifying change of social reference group. These terms are employed here to identify social processes initiating children’s orientation to a youth identity. The functions that material possessions fulfil are related to the ability to symbolically communicate both categorically and self-expressively a growing normative awareness and a sense of value.

Wahlqvist, M. L. (2003). "Regional food diversity and human health."  12(3): 304-308.
	Regions are significant for the way we understand and strategize food for health and economic development. They generally represent various food cultures and opportunities for food exchange based on proximity, historical linkages and complementarities. The example of North and West Africa represents an intersection of some of the most original of human eating experiences out of Africa and the enrichment of these by Arab traders, through the exchange of products, ideas, observations, beliefs and technologies. All of these will have encouraged diversity in food intake. However food diversity and, with it, biodiversity may not always have been recognized as important, and, therefore, secured and protected. Ultimately, food diversity cannot be sustained unless the food chain and the technologies to support it are environmentally appropriate. Cooking, without renewable energy sources, is a critical example. Additionally, human settlement has always required an adequate, a dependable and a safe water supply, although this same settlement tends to compromise these water characteristics. Water is a major factor in food diversity, whether as a source of aquatic food, or the basis of food production and preparation. The extent to which food diversity for human health is required will depend on the food component (essential nutrient and phytochemical) density of the foods represented. For example, fish, fresh lean meat, eggs and seed foods (grains, pulses, nuts) will reduce the requirement. Regional food diversity can support food diversity at the community level - where otherwise it might be fragile - by shared learning experiences, and by trade. Diversity can also be captured and enshrined in recipes with composite ingredients and by traditional emblematic foods - like soups and pies; and it provides the basis for food culture and cuisine. The evidence for food diversity (or variety) as a major factor in health has grown substantially over the last few years - as integrative indices of health like "maternal nutrition" and "successful pregnancy" (for example, through the inclusion of a variety of food sources of folate, increasing the bioavailability of iron, and the sustainable intakes of quality food protein and essential fatty acids); "adult mortality rates"; other "specific disease incidences" (like cancer, cardiovascular disease, diabetes and bone health) for "risk factors for disease" (like hypertension and abdominal fatness); and for "wellbeing" (palatable, enjoying and neurologically relevant food stuffs). Thus, there is an ongoing need to promote and maintain food diversity at the regional level and between communities.

Waisbren, S. E., H. Rokni, et al. (1997). "Social factors and the meaning of food in adherence to medical diets: Results of a maternal phenylketonuria summer camp."  20(1): 21-27.
	A Maternal PKU camp provided education and social support for 25 young women with phenylketonuria (PKU). Questionnaires were administered and blood samples were collected on the first and last days of camp to evaluate the psychological and medical impact of the programme. Long-term assessed through telephone interviews 7-14 months later. Knowledge of maternal PKU and the maternal PKU diet increased significantly. There was a significant increase in campers' ratings of the degree to which others supported the use of birth control to prevent late-treated pregnancies, although campers' comfort with contraception did not change, Mean blood phenylalanine concentrations were significantly reduced by 37% during camp and by 20% at follow-up. Ninety-six per cent of campers remained in contact with other campers after the summer. At follow-up, one pregnancy was reported, in which metabolic control was achieved prior to conception. Overall, attitudes about treatment and perceptions about ability to cope with PKU did not change to a significant degree. It is suggested that camps may be most successful in changing both behaviour and attitudes if they actively involve the campers in food preparation, address the psychological meaning of food in our culture, and provide social support.

Wakefield, S. E. L. a. B., P (2005). "Family, friend or foe? Critical reflections on the relevance and role of social capital in health promotion and community development,." Social Science & Medicine 60(2819-2832).
	
Walker, N. A. (1998). Women's magazines, 1940-1960 : gender roles and the popular press. Boston, Bedford/St. Martin's.
	
Walker, N. A. (2000). Shaping our mothers' world : American women's magazines. Jackson ; [Great Britain], University Press of Mississippi.
	
Wall, G. (2001). "Moral constructions of motherhood in breastfeeding discourse."  15(4): 592-610.
	Some of the ways in which the experience of mothering is shaped by the moral and cultural constructions surrounding breastfeeding discourse are examined using a critical deconstruction of recent Canadian health education material. Connections between the understandings surrounding breastfeeding and cultural constructions of nature and sexuality are raised, as is the overlap between breast feeding discourse and a number of other social discourses including those surrounding child-centered parenting expertise, the remoralization of pregnancy, and the neoliberal preoccupation with individual responsibility and the cost of social programs. Some of the implications that this understanding poses for mothers are examined.

Wallace, J. and H. Wildy (2004). "Old Questions for New Schools: What Are the Students Doing?" Teachers College Record 106(4): 635-650.
	
Waller, J. and M. Vaughan-Rees (1987). Women in wartime : the role of women's magazines 1939-1945. London, Macdonald Optima.
	
Wallerstein, J. S. and S. Blakeslee (1990). Second chances : men, women and children a decade after divorce. London, Corgi.
	
Walsh, J. and M. Harrigan (2003). "The termination stage in Bowen's family systems theory." Clinical Social Work Journal 31(4): 383-394.
	The termination stage has always been recognized as an important aspect of the clinical intervention process. Careful attention to that stage is even more critical in the current practice environment of short-term intervention and demands for measurable outcomes. Bowen's family systems theory, while well established in the field of clinical practice, does not incorporate clear directives for the practitioner about the ending stage of intervention. Still, its major concepts for assessment and intervention suggest a range of termination activities that can affirm and summarize a family's gains. In this article the authors offer a variety of ending strategies for use within family systems theory

Wambach, K., S. H. Campbell, et al. (2005). "Clinical lactation practice: 20 years of evidence." Journal of Human Lactation 21(3): 245-258.
	
Wambach, K. A. and M. Koehn (2004). "Experiences of infant-feeding decision-making among urban economically disadvantaged pregnant adolescents." Journal of Advanced Nursing 48(4): 361-370.
	
Wansink, B. (2003). "Profiling nutritional gatekeepers: three methods for differentiating influential cooks." Food Quality and Preference 14(4): 289-297.
	While nutritional education often focuses on food consumers, this research focuses on cooks. How can we determine the characteristics that define cooks who are capable of changing the taste preferences and eating habits of their family from those who are less influential? Using in-depth interviews, focus groups, and a survey of 770 North Americans, we examine three suggested domains-cooking behaviors, food usage, and personality- and show that the domain of personality most effectively differentiates between segments of cooks. Furthermore, personality segmentation enables researchers and those in public policy to identify which cooks are likely to be most socially influential, inclined toward healthy behavior, predisposed to new foods, and eager to learn

Warde, A. (1993). "Fragmented Societies - a Sociology of Economic Life Beyond the Market Paradigm - Mingione,E." British Journal of Sociology 44(4): 723-724.
	
Warde, A. (1993). "Life-Style Shopping - the Subject of Consumption - Shields,R." WORK EMPLOYMENT AND SOCIETY 7(4): 662-663.
	
Warde, A. (1993). "Mass Consumption and Personal Identity - Lunt,Pk, Livingstone,Sm." WORK EMPLOYMENT AND SOCIETY 7(4): 662-663.
	
Warde, A. (1994). "The Sociology of Food - Eating, Diet and Culture - Mennell,S, Murcott,a, Vanotterloo,Ah." Sociology-the Journal of the British Sociological Association 28(1): 350-351.
	
Warde, A. (1996). "Acknowledging consumption: A review of new studies - Miller,D." SOCIOLOGICAL REVIEW 44(2): 335-337.
	
Warde, A. (1997). "Consumption in the age of affluence: The world of food - Fine,B, Heasman,M, Wright,J." British Journal of Sociology 48(2): 328-329.
	
Warde, A. (1997). "The unmanageable consumer: Contemporary consumption and its fragmentations - Gabriel,Y, Lang,T." Organization 4(3): 444-446.
	
Warde, A. (1998). "Consuming geographies: We are where we eat." SOCIOLOGICAL REVIEW 46(2): 396-397.
	
Warde, A. (1998). "Sociology on the menu: An invitation to the study of food and society." British Journal of Sociology 49(2): 327-328.
	
Warde, A. (1999). "We are what we eat: Ethnic food and the making of Americans." Ethnic and Racial Studies 22(5): 924-925.
	
Warde, A. (2001). "Food, morals and meaning: the pleasure and anxiety of eating." Sociology of Health & Illness 23(1): 132-133.
	
Warde, A. (2002). "Changing Chinese foodways in Asia." International Sociology 17(4): 565-567.
	
Warde, A. (2002). "Food, drink and identity: Cooking, eating and drinking in Europe since the Middle Ages." Sociological Research Online 6(4).
	
Warde, A. and K. Hetherington (1993). "A Changing Domestic Division-of-Labor - Issues of Measurement and Interpretation." WORK EMPLOYMENT AND SOCIETY 7(1): 23-45.
	This paper is concerned to evaluate recent arguments about changes in the domestic division of labour. To this end it identifies different positions on the issue in the literature and deploys some evidence from a survey in Greater Manchester in 1990 to try to discriminate between competing views. We report findings, regarding couple households, about the sex-stereotyping of domestic tasks and about differences in the domestic labour contributions of wives, husbands and young people living in their parental home. The key determinants of variation among households are isolated. We explore attitudes towards sharing and fairness. The results suggest that, with some qualifications, gender stereotyping of specific domestic tasks and unequal contributions between men and women cannot have shifted much in recent years.

Warde, A. and K. Hetherington (1994). "English Households and Routine Food Practices - a Research Note." SOCIOLOGICAL REVIEW 42(4): 758-778.
	This paper reports some findings from a study of households in the region of Greater Manchester. As part of a wider study of divisions of labour within households, information was collected about food preparation, the place of food in domestic routines and aspects of food preferences. The results are compared with Charles and Kerr's (1988) account of British domestic food practices.

Warde, A., L. Martens, et al. (1999). "Consumption and the problem of variety: Cultural omnivorousness, social distinction and dining out." Sociology-the Journal of the British Sociological Association 33(1): 105-127.
	In the light of the work of Pierre Bourdieu, this paper begins by reviewing an argument that Western populations no longer recognise any fixed cultural hierarchy and that, instead, individuals seek knowledge of an increasingly wide variety of aesthetically equivalent cultural genres. Contrasting versions of this argument are isolated. Data concerning the frequency of use of different commercial sources of meals and the social characteristics of customers using different types of restaurant in England are examined. An attempt is made to infer the social and symbolic significance of variety of experience and, in particular, of familiarity with diverse ethnic cuisines. The findings are interpreted in terms of the complex role of consumption in personal assurance, communicative competence and social distinction. It is maintained that the pursuit of variety of consumer experience is a feature of particular social groups and that some specific component practices express social distinction.

Warde, A., G. Tampubolon, et al. (2005). "Recreation, informal social networks and social capital." JOURNAL OF LEISURE RESEARCH 37(4): 402-425.
	This paper examines the determinants of recreational practices amongst members of three diverse voluntary associations in the North West of England, focusing on being hosts and guests in private homes and eating and drinking outside the home. Using multi-level models analysing a rich data source on the social networks of members, we show how respondents' sociability is affected less by their socio-demographic characteristics than by the nature of their social networks. We show, against expectations, that there is little evidence of homophily in these recreational practices, which indicates that informal social contacts may be especially important in generating "bridging" and "boundary-spanning" types of social capital. We use the evidence to argue the need for a "sociology of companionship" which highlights routine sociability around recreational practices.

Wardle, J., S. Carnell, et al. (2005). "Parental control over feeding and children's fruit and vegetable intake: how are they related?" J Am Diet Assoc 105(2): 227-232.
	OBJECTIVES: To replicate the finding of a negative association between parental control and fruit and vegetable consumption in girls. To extend the investigation to boys and examine sex differences. To test the hypothesis that children's food neophobia explains this association. DESIGN: Cross-sectional questionnaire survey. MEASURES: The questionnaire included items assessing parents' and children's fruit and vegetable intake, the Parental Control Index, and the Child Food Neophobia Scale. SUBJECTS: Parents of 564 2- to 6-year-old children, recruited from 22 London nursery schools. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS: Relationships between continuous variables were examined with Pearson product moment correlation coefficients. Sex differences were tested using independent sample t tests, and sex differences in correlations were assessed from their 95% confidence intervals. Parental control and children's food neophobia were entered into a hierarchical multiple regression to test the hypothesis that neophobia explains the association between parental control and children's fruit and vegetable intake. RESULTS: We replicated the finding that parental control was correlated with children's fruit and vegetable consumption and found no significant sex differences. Parental fruit and vegetable consumption and children's food neophobia were also strong predictors of children's fruit and vegetable consumption, and both were associated with parental control, suggesting that they might explain the association between control and intake. Controlling for children's food neophobia and parental intake reduced the association of parental control with children's fruit and vegetable intake to nonsignificance. CONCLUSIONS: These findings emphasize the importance of systematic research about associations between parental feeding styles and children's dietary habits so that dietetics professionals can give parents sound advice.

Wardle, J., C. Guthrie, et al. (2001). "Development of the Children's Eating Behaviour Questionnaire." J. Child Psychol. Psychiat. 42(7): 963-970.
	Individual differences in several aspects of eating style have been implicated in the development of weight problems in children and adults, but there are presently no reliable and valid scales that assess a range of dimensions of eating style. This paper describes the development and preliminary validation of a parent-rated instrument to assess eight dimensions of eating style in children; the Children's Eating Behaviour Questionnaire (CEBQ). Constructs for inclusion were derived both from the existing literature on eating behaviour in children and adults, and from interviews with parents. They included reponsiveness to food, enjoyment of food, satiety responsiveness, slowness in eating, fussiness, emotional overeating, emotional undereating, and desire for drinks. A large pool of items covering each of these constructs was developed. The number of items was then successively culled through analysis of responses from three samples of families of young children (N¯131; N¯187; N¯218), to produce a 35-item instrument with eight scales which were internally valid and had good test-retest reliability. Investigation of variations by gender and age revealed only minimal gender differences in any aspect of eating style. Satiety responsiveness and slowness in eating diminished from age 3 to 8. Enjoyment of food and food responsiveness increased over this age range. The CEBQ should provide a useful
measure of eating style for research into the early precursors of obesity or eating disorders. This is especially important in relation to the growing evidence for the heritability of obesity, where good measurement of the associated behavioural phenotype will be crucial in investigating the contribution of inherited variations in eating behaviour to the process of weight gain.

Wardle, J., C. A. Guthrie, et al. (2001). "Development of the Children's Eating Behaviour Questionnaire." J Child Psychol Psychiatry 42(7): 963-70.
	Individual differences in several aspects of eating style have been implicated in the development of weight problems in children and adults, but there are presently no reliable and valid scales that assess a range of dimensions of eating style. This paper describes the development and preliminary validation of a parent-rated instrument to assess eight dimensions of eating style in children; the Children's Eating Behaviour Questionnaire (CEBQ). Constructs for inclusion were derived both from the existing literature on eating behaviour in children and adults, and from interviews with parents. They included responsiveness to food, enjoyment of food, satiety responsiveness, slowness in eating. fussiness, emotional overeating, emotional undereating. and desire for drinks. A large pool of items covering each of these constructs was developed. The number of items was then successively culled through analysis of responses from three samples of families of young children (N = 131; N = 187; N = 218), to produce a 35-item instrument with eight scales which were internally valid and had good test-retest reliability. Investigation of variations by gender and age revealed only minimal gender differences in any aspect of eating style. Satiety responsiveness and slowness in eating diminished from age 3 to 8. Enjoyment of food and food responsiveness increased over this age range. The CEBQ should provide a useful measure of eating style for research into the early precursors of obesity or eating disorders. This is especially important in relation to the growing evidence for the heritability of obesity, where good measurement of the associated behavioural phenotype will be crucial in investigating the contribution of inherited variations in eating behaviour to the process of weight gain.

Wardle, J., K. Parmenter, et al. (2000). "Nutrition knowledge and food intake." Appetite 34: 269-275.
	
Wardle, J., S. Sanderson, et al. (2002). "Parental feeding style and the inter-generational transmission of obesity risk." Obes Res 10(6): 453-62.
	OBJECTIVE: This study was designed to determine whether a community sample of obese mothers with young children used different feeding styles compared with a matched sample of normal-weight mothers. Four aspects of feeding style were assessed: emotional feeding, instrumental feeding (using food as a reward), prompting/encouragement to eat, and control over eating. RESEARCH METHODS AND PROCEDURES: Participants were from 214 families with same-sex twins; 100 families in which both parents were overweight or obese and 114 in which both parents were normal weight or lean. RESULTS: We found that obese mothers were no more likely than normal-weight mothers to offer food to deal with emotional distress, use food as a form of reward, or encourage the child to eat more than was wanted. The obese and normal-weight mothers did differ on &quot;control&quot;; obese mothers reported significantly less control over their children's intake, and this was seen for both first-born and second-born twins. Twin analyses showed that these differences were not in response to children's genetic propensities, because monozygotic correlations were no greater than dizygotic correlations for maternal feeding style. DISCUSSION: These results suggest that the stereotype of the obese mother, who uses food in nonnutritive ways so that her child also becomes obese, is more likely to be myth than fact. However, the results raise the possibility that lack of control of food intake might contribute to the emergence of differences in weight.

Wasoff, F. a. D., I. (2000). Family Policy. London:, Gildredge Press.
	
Waugh, E. and C. M. Bulik (1999). "Offspring of women with eating disorders."  25(2): 123-133.
	We evaluated health and development, temperament, body satisfaction, nutritional status, and mealtime interaction patterns in offspring (ages 1-4) of women with current or past anorexia and/or bulimia nervosa in comparison to control children. Method: information was gathered via maternal report and interview, health and development records, a 3 day food diary, and a videotaped lunchtime interaction. Results: Children of women with eating disorders had significantly lower birth weights and lengths than control children. There were no differences observed in childhood temperament or mothers' satisfaction with children's appearance. Mothers with eating disorders had more difficulty maintaining breastfeeding and they made significantly fewer positive comments about food and eating than control mothers during the mealtime observation. Discussion: Feeding behavior in women with eating disorders appears to be problematic from pregnancy through the toddler years and has various manifestations from low birth weight, to difficulties with breast feeding to detached and noninteractive mealtimes. Although these factors are unlikely to cause eating disorders, they may contribute to a permissive environment in which a genetic predisposition is more likely to be expressed. (C) 1999 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Wayland, C. (2004). "Infant agency and its implication for breast-feeding promotion in Brazil." Human Organization 63(3): 277-288.
	
Wehler, C., L. F. Weinreb, et al. (2004). "Risk and protective factors for adult and child hunger among low-income housed and homeless female-headed families."  94(1): 109-115.
	Objectives. We sought to identify factors associated with adult or child hunger. Methods. Low-income housed and homeless mothers were interviewed about socioeconomic, psychosocial, health, and food sufficiency information. Multinomial logistic regression produced models predicting adult or child hunger. Results. Predictors of adult hunger included mothers' childhood sexual molestation and current parenting difficulties, or "hassles." Risk factors for child hunger included mothers' childhood sexual molestation, housing subsidies, brief local residence, having more or older children, and substandard housing. Conclusions. This study found that the odds of hunger, although affected by resource constraints in low-income female-headed families, were also worsened by mothers' poor physical and mental health. Eliminating hunger thus may require broader interventions than food programs. (Am J Public Health. 2004;94:109-115).

Weiner, S. (1999). "Two Modernities: from Elle to Mademoiselle: Women's Magazines in Postwar France." Contemporary European History 8(3): 395-409.
	Beginning with its first issue of 1945, Elle magazine was instrumental in changing the way the French saw female domesticity in the postwar period, infusing the domestic space with an aura of glamour and modernity. Newly glamorous female domesticity went hand-in-hand with images of women as voters and professionals, communicating to the magazine's readers that they could "have it all" - but never to the exclusion of their primary identity as mothers and wives. This ultimately conservative postwar version of femininity came to be challenged in the early 1960's by Mademoiselle, a magazine that projected a reader unmarked by war memories and whose relationship to technology and modernity went beyond the home. Yet, Mademoiselle was grooming the fun-loving teenage girl as a consumer who would one day be a wife and mother as well; from one version of modernity to another, feminine destiny remained the same.

Weinreb, L., C. Wehler, et al. "Hunger: its impact on children's health and mental health."
	OBJECTIVE: Hunger, with its adverse consequences for children, continues to be an important national problem. Previous studies that document the deleterious effects of hunger among children cannot distinguish child from family hunger and do not take into account some critical environmental, maternal, and child variables that may influence child outcomes. This study examines the independent contribution of child hunger on children's physical and mental health and academic functioning, when controlling for a range of environmental, maternal, and child factors that have also been associated with poor outcomes among children. METHODS: With the use of standardized tools, comprehensive demographic, psychosocial, and health data were collected in Worcester, Massachusetts, from homeless and low-income housed mothers and their children (180 preschool-aged children and 228 school-aged children). Mothers and children were part of a larger unmatched case-control study of homelessness among female-headed households. Hunger was measured by a set of 7 dichotomous items, each asking the mother whether she has or her children have experienced a particular aspect of hunger during the past year--1 concerns food insecurity for the entire family, 2 concern adult hunger, and 4 involve child hunger. The items, taken from the Childhood Hunger Identification Project measure, are summed to classify the family and divided into 3 categories: no hunger, adult or moderate child hunger, or severe child hunger (indicating multiple signs of child hunger). Outcome measures included children's chronic health condition count using questions adapted from the National Health Interview Survey, Child Health Supplement, and internalizing behavior problems and anxiety/depression, measured by the Child Behavior Checklist. Additional covariates included demographic variables (ie, age, gender, ethnicity, housing status, number of moves, family size, income), low birth weight, child life events (ie, care and protection order, out of home placement, abuse, severe life events count), developmental problems (ie, developmental delay, learning disability, emotional problems), and mother's distress and psychiatric illness. Multivariate regression analyses examined the effect of child hunger on physical and mental health outcomes. RESULTS: The average family size for both preschoolers and school-aged children was 3; about one third of both groups were white and 40% Puerto Rican. The average income of families was approximately $11 000. Among the school-aged children, on average 10 years old, 50% experienced moderate child hunger and 16% severe child hunger. Compared with those with no hunger, school-aged children with severe hunger were more likely to be homeless (56% vs 29%), have low birth weights (23% vs 6%), and have more stressful life events (9 vs 6) when compared with those with no hunger. School-aged children with severe hunger scores had parent-reported anxiety scores that were more than double the scores for children with no hunger and significantly higher chronic illness counts (3.4 vs 1.8) and internalizing behavior problems when compared with children with no hunger. There was no relationship between hunger and academic achievement. Among preschool-aged children, who averaged 4 years of age, 51% experienced moderate child hunger and 8% severe child hunger. For preschoolers, compared with children with no hunger, severe hunger was associated with homelessness (75% vs 48%), more traumatic life events (8.5 vs 6), low birth weight (23% vs 6%), and higher levels of chronic illness and internalizing behavior problems. Mothers of both preschoolers and school-aged children who reported severe hunger were more likely to have a lifetime diagnosis of posttraumatic stress disorder. For school-aged children, severe hunger was a significant predictor of chronic illness after controlling for housing status, mother's distress, low birth weight, and child live events. For preschoolers, moderate hunger was a significant predictor of health conditions while controlling for potenns while controlling for potential explanatory factors. For both preschoolers and school-aged children, severe child hunger was associated with higher levels of internalizing behavior problems. After controlling for housing status, mother's distress, and stressful life events, severe child hunger was also associated with higher reported anxiety/depression among school-aged children. CONCLUSION: This study goes beyond previous research and highlights the independent relationship between severe child hunger and adverse physical health and mental health outcomes among low-income children. Study findings underscore the importance of clinical recognition of child hunger and its outcomes, allowing for preventive interventions and efforts to increase access to food-related resources for families.

Weinreb, L., C. Wehler, et al. "Hunger: its impact on children's health and mental health."
	OBJECTIVE: Hunger, with its adverse consequences for children, continues to be an important national problem. Previous studies that document the deleterious effects of hunger among children cannot distinguish child from family hunger and do not take into account some critical environmental, maternal, and child variables that may influence child outcomes. This study examines the independent contribution of child hunger on children's physical and mental health and academic functioning, when controlling for a range of environmental, maternal, and child factors that have also been associated with poor outcomes among children. METHODS: With the use of standardized tools, comprehensive demographic, psychosocial, and health data were collected in Worcester, Massachusetts, from homeless and low-income housed mothers and their children (180 preschool-aged children and 228 school-aged children). Mothers and children were part of a larger unmatched case-control study of homelessness among female-headed households. Hunger was measured by a set of 7 dichotomous items, each asking the mother whether she has or her children have experienced a particular aspect of hunger during the past year--1 concerns food insecurity for the entire family, 2 concern adult hunger, and 4 involve child hunger. The items, taken from the Childhood Hunger Identification Project measure, are summed to classify the family and divided into 3 categories: no hunger, adult or moderate child hunger, or severe child hunger (indicating multiple signs of child hunger). Outcome measures included children's chronic health condition count using questions adapted from the National Health Interview Survey, Child Health Supplement, and internalizing behavior problems and anxiety/depression, measured by the Child Behavior Checklist. Additional covariates included demographic variables (ie, age, gender, ethnicity, housing status, number of moves, family size, income), low birth weight, child life events (ie, care and protection order, out of home placement, abuse, severe life events count), developmental problems (ie, developmental delay, learning disability, emotional problems), and mother's distress and psychiatric illness. Multivariate regression analyses examined the effect of child hunger on physical and mental health outcomes. RESULTS: The average family size for both preschoolers and school-aged children was 3; about one third of both groups were white and 40% Puerto Rican. The average income of families was approximately $11 000. Among the school-aged children, on average 10 years old, 50% experienced moderate child hunger and 16% severe child hunger. Compared with those with no hunger, school-aged children with severe hunger were more likely to be homeless (56% vs 29%), have low birth weights (23% vs 6%), and have more stressful life events (9 vs 6) when compared with those with no hunger. School-aged children with severe hunger scores had parent-reported anxiety scores that were more than double the scores for children with no hunger and significantly higher chronic illness counts (3.4 vs 1.8) and internalizing behavior problems when compared with children with no hunger. There was no relationship between hunger and academic achievement. Among preschool-aged children, who averaged 4 years of age, 51% experienced moderate child hunger and 8% severe child hunger. For preschoolers, compared with children with no hunger, severe hunger was associated with homelessness (75% vs 48%), more traumatic life events (8.5 vs 6), low birth weight (23% vs 6%), and higher levels of chronic illness and internalizing behavior problems. Mothers of both preschoolers and school-aged children who reported severe hunger were more likely to have a lifetime diagnosis of posttraumatic stress disorder. For school-aged children, severe hunger was a significant predictor of chronic illness after controlling for housing status, mother's distress, low birth weight, and child live events. For preschoolers, moderate hunger was a significant predictor of health conditions while controlling for potenns while controlling for potential explanatory factors. For both preschoolers and school-aged children, severe child hunger was associated with higher levels of internalizing behavior problems. After controlling for housing status, mother's distress, and stressful life events, severe child hunger was also associated with higher reported anxiety/depression among school-aged children. CONCLUSION: This study goes beyond previous research and highlights the independent relationship between severe child hunger and adverse physical health and mental health outcomes among low-income children. Study findings underscore the importance of clinical recognition of child hunger and its outcomes, allowing for preventive interventions and efforts to increase access to food-related resources for families.

Weinreb, L., C. Wehler, et al. (2002). "Hunger: Its impact on children's health and mental health."  110(4).
	Objective. Hunger, with its adverse consequences for children, continues to be an important national problem. Previous studies that document the deleterious effects of hunger among children cannot distinguish child from family hunger and do not take into account some critical environmental, maternal, and child variables that may influence child outcomes. This study examines the independent contribution of child hunger on children's physical and mental health and academic functioning, when controlling for a range of environmental, maternal, and child factors that have also been associated with poor outcomes among children. Methods. With the use of standardized tools, comprehensive demographic, psychosocial, and health data were collected in Worcester, Massachusetts, from homeless and low-income housed mothers and their children (180 preschool-aged children and 228 school-aged children). Mothers and children were part of a larger unmatched case-control study of homelessness among female-headed households. Hunger was measured by a set of 7 dichotomous items, each asking the mother whether she has or her children have experienced a particular aspect of hunger during the past year-1 concerns food insecurity for the entire family, 2 concern adult hunger, and 4 involve child hunger. The items, taken from the Childhood Hunger Identification Project measure, are summed to classify the family and divided into 3 categories: no hunger, adult or moderate child hunger, or severe child hunger (indicating multiple signs of child hunger). Outcome measures included children's chronic health condition count using questions adapted from the National Health Interview Survey, Child Health Supplement, and internalizing behavior problems and anxiety/depression, measured by the Child Behavior Checklist. Additional covariates included demographic variables (ie, age, gender, ethnicity, housing status, number of moves, family size, income), low birth weight, child life events (ie, care and protection order, out of home placement, abuse, severe life events count), developmental problems (ie, developmental delay, learning disability, emotional problems), and mother's distress and psychiatric illness. Multivariate regression analyses examined the effect of child hunger on physical and mental health outcomes. Results. The average family size for both preschoolers and school-aged children was 3; about one third of both groups were white and 40% Puerto Rican. The average income of families was approximately $11 000. Among the school-aged children, on average 10 years old, 50% experienced moderate child hunger and 16% severe child hunger. Compared with those with no hunger, school-aged children with severe hunger were more likely to be homeless (56% vs 29%), have low birth weights (23% vs 6%), and have more stressful life events (9 vs 6) when compared with those with no hunger. School-aged children with severe hunger scores had parent-reported anxiety scores that were more than double the scores for children with no hunger and significantly higher chronic illness counts (3.4 vs 1.8) and internalizing behavior problems when compared with children with no hunger. There was no relationship between hunger and academic achievement. Among preschool-aged children, who averaged 4 years of age, 51% experienced moderate child hunger and 8% severe child hunger. For preschoolers, compared with children with no hunger, severe hunger was associated with homelessness (75% vs 48%), more traumatic life events (8.5 vs 6), low birth weight (23% vs 6%), and higher levels of chronic illness and internalizing behavior problems. Mothers of both preschoolers and school-aged children who reported severe hunger were more likely to have a lifetime diagnosis of posttraumatic stress disorder. For school-aged children, severe hunger was a significant predictor of chronic illness after controlling for housing status, mother's distress, low birth weight, and child live events. For preschoolers, moderate hunger was a significant predictor of health conditions while controlling for potential explanatory factors. For both preschoolers and school-aged children, severe child hunger was associated with higher levels of internalizing behavior problems. After controlling for housing status, mother's distress, and stressful life events, severe child hunger was also associated with higher reported anxiety/depression among school-aged children. Conclusion. This study goes beyond previous research and highlights the independent relationship between severe child hunger and adverse physical health and mental health outcomes among low-income children. Study findings underscore the importance of clinical recognition of child hunger and its outcomes, allowing for preventive interventions and efforts to increase access to food-related resources for families.

Weis, L. (2003). "Gender, masculinity and the new economy." AUSTRALIAN EDUCATIONAL RESEARCHER 30(3): 111-129.
	This paper examines the ' remaking' of white working class masculinities in the latter quarter of the twentieth century. It draws on ethnographic data gathered at two points in time in order to interrogate the relation of macro- economic and social relations on individual and group identities; to excavate the social psychological relations ' between' genders and races, as narrated by white working- class men; and to explore the nuanced variations among these men. Addressing theoretical, empirical and methodological issues associated with these studies, I argue that the remaking of the white working class can only be understood in relation to gendered constructions within itself, the construction of relevant ' others', as well as deep shifts in large social formations.

Wells, J. C. K. (2003). "Parent-offspring conflict theory, signaling of need, and weight gain in early life." Quarterly Review of Biology 78(2): 169-202.
	
Wells, K. J., N. J. Thompson, et al. (2002). "Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and intention to breast-feed." American Journal of Health Behavior 26(2): 111-120.
	
Westenhoefer, J. (2002). "Establishing dietary habits during childhood for long-term weight control."  46: 18-23.
	Objective: To review psychosocial research with respect to relevance for the development of nutritional education strategies for optimal weight control during childhood and the longer term. Results: Recent decades have witnessed changes in the social context of eating, with a trend away from family meals towards grazing and eating alone. At the same time, the prevalence of overweight and obesity is increasing amongst both children and adults, with even young children deliberately practising weight control measures, ranging from selective food choice to self-induced vomiting. Such behaviour is motivated by unrealistic perceptions of healthy body weight and shape. Successful long-term management of healthy body weight is supported by flexible control of eating behaviour and long-term educational strategies. Children are interested in learning about a wide range of nutrition topics. However, to be effective, nutrition education should be appropriate to the stage of cognitive development according to the age of the child, and be placed in the context of the direct, perceivable and immediate benefits resulting from good nutrition. Conclusion: Educational strategies should focus on consumption of a balanced diet, coupled with provision of a variety of foods, including a range of nutrient-dense 'healthy' food and encouraging children to taste unfamiliar dishes. They should provide a stable and predictive pattern of social eating occasions to promote the social meaning and importance of eating, and to enable social learning of food preferences. Educational strategies should provide orientation and reassurance regarding the range of healthy and acceptable body weights and shapes. They should also encourage flexible control of eating behaviour to enable children to maintain their weight within this healthy range. Copyright (C) 2002 S. Karger AG, Basel.

Whelan, A. and P. Lupton (1998). "Promoting successful breast feeding among women with a low income."  14(2): 94-100.
	Objective: to identify those factors which promote or discourage successful breast feeding in a sample of women with a low income, Design: qualitative research using in-depth, semi-structured interviews, Sample: all women with a low income who were identified as having breast fed their latest baby at least once and who had delivered at a district general hospital in the south west of England from 17 September 1996 to 5 February 1997, Findings: three behavioural areas which determined whether or not women with a low income continued to breast feed were identified: individual and social environmental, baby and midwifery practice factors. In terms of individual and social environmental factors those women who continued to breast feed were more likely to have: positive attitudes; realistic expectations; greater levels of self-esteem; a supportive mother/friend; a partner who was not against breast feeding; and the ability to cope with the perceived temporary social isolation. In terms of baby factors those women who continued to breast feed had babies who were move likely to: have three- or four-hourly feeds; be perceived as a contented baby; and have gained weight. And finally, in terms of midwifery practice factors, those women who continued to breast feed were more likely to have: not been separated from their baby; not been given supplementary or complementary feeds; received good advice, especially with regard to positioning the baby at the breast; had greater continuity of midwifery input; had sufficient quality time with a midwife; and had the opportunity to solve problems with a community midwife's help, Implications for practice: midwifery practice can be improved to promote successful breast feeding among women with a low income by: 1) creating realistic expectations and increasing women's confidence/desire to succeed in breast feeding; 2) providing good quality advice and support to mothers of newborn babies, particularly with regard to positioning the baby at the breast; 3) improving social-support networks available to breast-feeding mothers, perhaps through educating grandmothers (or partners) in breastfeeding matters.

Whelan, A. W., N   Warm, D   Cannings, E (2002). "Life in a 'food desert'." Urban Studies 39(11): 2083-2100.
	
Whelan, E. and P. J. Cooper (2000). "The association between childhood feeding problems and maternal eating disorder: a community study."  30(1): 69-77.
	Background. A possible association between childhood feeding problems and maternal eating disorder has been suggested by a clinic-based self-report questionnaire study. A community study was conducted, using standardized psychiatric interviews, to investigate the strength and specificity of this putative association. Methods. Four-year-old children were screened using a self-report version of the Behaviour Screening Questionnaire, completed by mothers, and the Pre-School Behaviour Checklist, completed by teachers. Three groups of children were identified for follow-up: children with feeding problems (N = 42), children with a non-feeding form of disturbance (i.e, shyness, fearfulness or behavioural disturbance; N = 79), and a random sample of children with no disturbance (N = 29). The presence of feeding problems was confirmed by assessment of a filmed family meal, with ratings made blind to child group and maternal mental state. Maternal current and past affective disorder and current and past eating disorder were systematically assessed, blind to child status, using the Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule and the Eating Disorder Examination respectively. Results. Compared with the mothers of the two comparison groups of children, the mothers of the children with feeding problems had no raised rate of any affective disorder, either current or past, but they did have a markedly raised rate of both current and past DSM-IV eating disorder. The odds ratio of maternal eating disorder for the children with feeding problems was significantly raised at 11.1 (CI 1.4-91.8). Conclusion. There is a strong and specific association between childhood feeding problems and maternal eating disorder.

Whitaker, R. C., C. M. Deeks, et al. (2000). "The relationship of childhood adiposity to parent body mass index and eating behavior." Obesity Research. 8(3): 234-40.
	OBJECTIVE: To better understand risk factors for the development of obesity in early childhood, we examined the association between children's adiposity and their parents' eating behavior and body mass index (BMI). RESEARCH METHODS AND PROCEDURES: Parents of 85 white children 36 months of age (49 boys and 36 girls) completed the Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire measuring three dimensions of parent eating behavior: disinhibited eating, cognitive restraint of eating, and susceptibility to hunger. Parent BMI (kg/m2) was calculated using self-reported height and weight. The children's percentage body fat was assessed by dual energy X-ray absorptiometry analysis. RESULTS: Twenty-six percent of parents were obese (BMI > or = 30 kg/m2). Both maternal and paternal BMI were associated with higher scores for disinhibition (r = 0.69 and r = 0.68, p < 0.001), and maternal BMI was also associated with higher scores for hunger (r = 0.51, p < 0.001). There were no significant relationships between children's percentage body fat and parent eating scores, and the correlation between children's percentage body fat and parent BMI was significant only between mothers and daughters (r = 0.35, p = 0.04). Obese parents were no more likely to have a child who was fatter (upper quintile of percentage body fat for gender). DISCUSSION: Among 36 month-old white children, parent eating behavior was related to parent BMI, but not to children's adiposity. There was only a weak relationship between parent BMI and child adiposity. Despite the aggregation of adiposity within families due to shared genes and environments, children may not express differences in susceptibility to obesity by 3 years of age.

Whitaker, R. C., S. N. Sherman, et al. (2004). "Altering the perceptions of WIC health professionals about childhood obesity using video with facilitated group discussion."  104(3): 379-386.
	Objective To determine if viewing a documentary video, followed by facilitated group discussion,, could alter the perceptions of those providing public health nutrition services about the barriers and solutions to addressing the problem of obesity in low-income preschoolers. Design Before-after trial to determine how often study participants could identify any of the 17 barriers and seven solutions targeted in the video and during the facilitated group discussion. Subjects/Setting One hundred fifty-five attendees of the 2001 Kentucky Maternal and Child Health Conference participated in the study. Sixty percent were nurses, 24% were dietitians or nutritionists, and 64% had Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) counseling experience. Intervention Participants first viewed a 20-minute documentary video about three families enrolled in WIC. A 40-minute facilitated group discussion followed to highlight the 17 barriers (eg, WIC families are struggling with many demands in their lives that make nutrition a low priority and WIC health professionals "lecture" clients on what they "need to know") and seven solutions (eg, adjusting WIC counseling to assess parenting skills and to increase sensitivity to clients' life context and stresses). Main Outcome Measures/ Analyses Participants responded before and after the intervention to the same two open-ended questions, one about barriers and one about solutions. Participant responses were coded to count instances of identifying any of the 17 barriers and seven solutions. Results At baseline, 51% of participants were unable to record any of the barriers, and 91% could not identify any of the solutions. After the intervention, 37% could identify at least one more of the target barriers than they did at baseline, and 24% could identify at least one more of the target solutions. Conclusions A documentary-style video, used with facilitated group discussion, can produce a short-term change in the perceptions of those providing public health nutrition services about addressing the problem of obesity in low-income preschool children.

White, C. L. (1970). Women's magazines, 1693-1968. London, Joseph.
	
Whiteman, S. D., S. M. McHale, et al. (2003). "What parents learn from experience: The first child as a first draft?" Journal of Marriage and the Family 65(3): 608-621.
	This study sought evidence for the proposition that experiences with earlier-born adolescents will improve parents' interactions with and parenting of later-born adolescents. Participants were mothers, fathers, and both first- and second- born siblings from 392 families participating in a longitudinal study. To collect information on siblings' family experiences, family members were interviewed individually in their homes. During the subsequent 2 to 3 weeks, 7 evening telephone interviews were also conducted, which focused on siblings' daily activities. Findings suggest that when parent-adolescent relationships were measured at the same age for both siblings, parents experienced less conflict with their second-born as compared with their firstborn adolescent offspring and exhibited greater knowledge of their secondborn offspring's daily activities as compared with their firstborns' daily experiences. These results are consistent with the notion that parents may learn from their childrearing experiences

Whiting, P. A. (2001). "Women's Magazines and the Representation of Death in Eighteenth-Century England." DAI 61(8): 3190-A.
	
Wiemann, C. M., J. C. DuBois, et al. (1998). "Racial/ethnic differences in the decision to breastfeed among adolescent mothers."  101(6).
	Objective. To identify racial/ethnic differences in prevalence and the factors that influence decisions to breastfeed among adolescent mothers. Methods. A total of 696 Mexican-American, African-American, and Caucasian adolescent mothers #18 years of age were interviewed on the postpartum ward of university hospital within 48 hours of delivery. Self-reported factors associated with the decision to breastfeed were assessed. Results. The decision to breastfeed was reported by 55% of Mexican-American, 45% of Caucasian, and 15% of African-American adolescent mothers. With the exception of perceived benefits of breastfeeding and exposure to educational materials, most factors associated with breastfeeding differed by race/ethnicity. Among Mexican-Americans, important factors included having relied on feeding advice (adjusted odds ratio [AOR]= 7.6); the feeding preference of a partner (AOR = 7.0) or mother (AOR = 6.6); and feeding decisions made in early pregnancy (AOR = 4.7). Among African-Americans, important factors included living with a partner (AOR= 10.6); having a mother who breastfed (AOR= 5.9); the feeding preference of a partner (AOR = 5.6) or health care provider (AOR = 4.7); and low family support (AOR 3.4). Among Caucasians, health care providers' feeding preference (AOR = 6.1) having two or more breastfeeding role models (AOR = 4.1); not being enrolled in Women, Infants, and Children's Supplemental Nutrition Program (AOR = 3.0) having relied on infant-feeding advice (AOR = 3.0); and prenatal alcohol use (AOR= 2.6) were associated with the decision to breastfeed. Conclusions. Prevalence and influences to breastfeed differ by patient race/ethnicity. We speculate that targeting the adolescent mother and members of her support system, educating them before and during pregnancy, and stressing benefits of this method while eliminating misinformation, especially among African-Americans, may be important intervention strategies to promote breastfeeding.

Wiemann, C. M., J. C. DuBois, et al. (1998). "Strategies to promote breast-feeding among adolescent mothers."  152(9): 862-869.
	Objective: To identify characteristics of adolescent mothers who bottle-feed who considered breast-feeding their infants and strategies to promote breast-feeding within this special group. Design: Adolescents completed an hour-long interview within 48 hours of delivery that elicited factors considered important to the mother's feeding decision and indices of mental health. Setting: Postpartum ward of university hospital. Subjects: A total of 693 adolescents 18 years old or younger (mean age, 16.7 years) from African American, Mexican American, or white race or ethnicity; 27% of Mexican American participants spoke little or no English. Main Outcome Measures: Factors associated with breast-feeding decision. Results: Those who chose bottle-feeding thereafter, bottle-feeders) who had considered breast-feeding were first compared with bottle-feeders who had not considered breast-feeding and then with adolescents who breastfed. After controlling for ethnicity, bottle-feeders who had considered breast-feeding were more likely than those who had not considered breast-feeding to be impoverished (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 4.8), to have delayed their feeding decision until the later stages of pregnancy (AOR = 4.6), to have been encouraged to breast-feed (AOR=4.5), to have friends who breast-fed (AOR=2.3), and to have experienced low financial, tangible, emotional, or informational support from their families (AOR=1.6). They were more likely to cite barriers associated with breast-feeding while returning to school or work (AOR=2.0) and less likely to state that bottle-feeding was healthier (AOR=0.3) as reasons for bottle-feeding. Compared with those who chose breast-feeding thereafter, breast-feeders), this group was more likely to have made the feeding decision alone rather than relying on advice (AOR=4.6), to have made this decision in the later stages of pregnancy (AOR=4.4), to report fewer breast-feeding role models (AOR=1.8) and fewer significant others who encouraged breast-feeding (AOR=2.8), and to report at least 2 significant others who encouraged bottle-feeding (AOR=3.2). They were also less likely to have attempted to breast-feed a previous child (AOR=3.3). Conclusions: A subgroup of adolescent mothers who had considered breast-feeding but ultimately chose to bottle-feed may be identified in the late stages of gestation by collecting information on financial status, family support, perceived barriers to breast-feeding and attending school or working, timing of the feeding decision, prior breast-feeding experience, breast-feeding role models, and encouragement to breast-feed. We speculate that strategies to promote breast-feeding should focus on role modeling and facilitation.

Wigfall, V. (2006). "Bringing Back Community: Family Support From the Bottom Up." Children and society 20(1): 17-29.
	
Wiggins, S. (2004). " 'Good for 'you': generic and individual healthy eating advice in family mealtimes.'" Journal of Health Psychology 9(4): 535-548.
	
Wiles, R. (1994). 'I'm not Fat, I'm Pregnant': The Impact of Pregnancy on Fat Women's Body Image. Women and Health Feminist Persepectives. S. Wilkinson and C. Kitzinger. London, Taylor & Francis: 33-49.
	
Wilkinson, R. B. and F. B. Scherl (2006). "Psychological health, maternal attachment and attachment style in breast- and formula-feeding mothers: a preliminary study."  24(1): 5-19.
	This study examined psychological health, maternal attachment, and attachment style in an Australian sample of breast- and formula-feeding mothers. Thirty-six breast- feeding and 24 formula-feeding women with a child between 4 and 6 months of age were recruited through community health centres and snowball sampling. Participation involved a 30-minute interview and completion of relevant questionnaires. Contrary to expectations, no differences were found between breast- and formula-feeding mothers in terms of their psychological health and maternal attachment. Results suggest that secure attachment styles are related to greater psychological health and that they predict the likelihood of a mother changing feeding method. The results of this study challenge widely held assumptions concerning the importance of breast-feeding for maternal well-being and attachment with infants, and support the literature suggesting attachment styles play an important role in affect regulation and the adjustment to new motherhood.

Wilkinson, R. G. (1992). "For debate: income distribution and life expectancy." British Medical Journal 304: 165-168.
	
William, F. (2002). "The presence of feminism in the future of welfare,." Economy and Society, 31(4): 501-519.
	
Williams, F. (2001). " In and beyond New Labour: towards a new political ethics of care,." Critical Social Policy 21(4): 467-490.
	
Williams, M. A., I. Emanuel, et al. (1999). "A population-based cohort study of the relation between maternal birthweight and risk of gestational diabetes mellitus in four racial/ethnic groups."  13(4): 452-465.
	Intrauterine growth retardation and low birthweight have been associated with an increased risk of insulin resistance and type II diabetes later in life. We hypothesised that maternal low birthweight is associated with an increased risk of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM). Study subjects comprised women giving birth in Washington State between 1987 and 1995. Information for 21528 births to non-Hispanic white women, 6359 to African-American women, 7456 to Native American women and 6496 to Hispanic women was available for analysis. All information was derived from statewide computerised vital records and hospital discharge summaries of obstetric and neonatal admissions with linkage to birth certificates of mothers. Maternal birthweight was collected from subjects' birth certificates. Information from both the birth certificates and the obstetric and neonatal admissions database was used to determine whether subjects developed GDM. Poisson regression models were estimated to calculate unadjusted and adjusted risk ratios (RRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for GDM by categories of maternal birthweight. The cumulative incidence of GDM among non-Hispanic white, African-American, Native American and Hispanic women was 2.8, 2.6, 2.7 and 3.0% respectively. After adjusting for maternal age, parity, cigarette smoking, history of chronic hypertension and participation in the Medicaid programme, non-Hispanic white women with a birthweight < 2000 g were 1.7 times more likely to have had their pregnancy complicated by GDM (RR = 1.7; 95% CI 0.8, 3.3) than those with a birthweight 3000-3999 g. The corresponding adjusted RRs for African-American, Native American, and Hispanic women were 2.8 [95% CI 1.2, 6.1], 3.1 [95% CI 1.2, 8.2] and 2.4 [95% CI 0.9, 6.0] respectively. Among African-American women, those with a birthweight greater than or equal to 4000 g also experienced a twofold increased risk of GDM (RR = 2.1; 95% CI 1.0, 4.1). This association of high birthweight and increased GDM risk was not found among women in the other three racial/ethnic groups. These findings suggest that individuals with low birthweight constitute a group at increased risk for GDM.

Williams, P. D., A. R. Williams, et al. (2002). "Interrelationships among variables affecting well siblings and mothers in families of children with a chronic illness or disability." Journal of Behavioral Medicine 25(5): 411-424.
	A structural equation model (SEM) examined interrelationships among psychosocial variables known to affect the health and development of well siblings and parents when a child with a chronic illness or disability is a member of the family. Using dyads of 252 well children and parents, socioeconomic status (SES) and family cohesion were associated with the parent- reported behavior of the well sibling. SES also influenced the mood of the mother that in turn influenced family cohesion. The well sibling's knowledge about the illness of the brother or sister, attitude toward the illness, mood, self-esteem, and feelings of social support were interrelated and related to the behavior of the well sibling. The SEM suggests that interventions may be directed at several points in these interactions including boosting knowledge levels of the well sibling, improving family cohesion, and assuring adequate "income" support to the family through income transfers or in- kind services

Williams, R. (1988). Keywords: A vocabulary of culture and society. London, Fontana.
	
Wills, W. (2005). "Food and Eating Practices During the Transition from Secondary School to New Social Contexts." Journal of Youth Studies 8(1): 97-110.
	This paper examines how the new social contexts experienced by young people after
leaving school are related to everyday food practices and eating habits. Findings from indepth
interviews with 31 young people aged 16 /24 years studying at a college of further
education in South East England are used to explore the role of new social spaces and
places and their impact on young people’s eating habits and routines. Young people’s
changing peer groups were related to the re-negotiation of food and eating practices and
young people often adopted particular habits when with particular groups of peers. The
consumption of alcohol, and feelings about appetite, weight and appearance, were sources
of anxiety for some young people, who often felt alone and different to their peers. Young
people often voiced a desire to differentiate from the food ethos present in their family
home and this was sometimes related to the adoption of a vegetarian diet; some young
people, however, reported being nostalgic for the ‘family food’ they ate before making the
transition from school. This study shows that food and eating practices are not ordinary,
mundane events in young people’s lives, but an important part of dealing with the
transition to new social contexts.

Wills, W., K. Backett-Milburn, et al. (2005). "The influence of the secondary school setting on the food practices of young teenagers from disadvantaged backgrounds in Scotland." Health Education Research 20(4): 458-465.
	In this paper, we explore the secondary school environment as an important context for understanding young teenagers' eating habits and food practices. We draw on data collected during semi-structured interviews with 36 young teenagers (aged 13/14 years) living in disadvantaged circumstances in Scotland. We found that the systems inherent in school had an impact on what, where and when participants ate their lunch. Each school had rules governing use of the school dining hall and participants sometimes chose to leave this environment to buy food outside school premises. Our interviews showed that parents determined how much money young people took to school and, therefore, had some control over their food choices. Participants rarely spoke of giving priority to food and eating during the non-curriculum parts of the school day, preferring to spend time 'hanging out' with friends. Eating with friends was sometimes reported as a cause of anxiety, particularly when participants had concerns about body image, appetite or appearance. We suggest that young teenagers' dislike for queuing for food, their ability to budget for food at school and their desire to maximize time spent with friends influence food choices; therefore, these are issues which have implications for health education and will be of interest to those responsible for school meal provision.

Willson, P. R. (1997). "Cooking the Patriotic Omelette: Women and the Italian Fascist Ruralization Campaign." European History Quarterly 27(4): 531-547.
	Discusses Massaie Rurali [rural housewives], the largest Fascist women's organization, as it illuminates the Fascist ruralization campaign aimed at Italian peasant women and the process of female politicization, the study of which has primarily focused on middle-class women. The Massaie Rurali, founded in 1934, was typical of the 1930's trend of taking the Fascist movement to people of all classes and, for the first time, to women. Although this Fascist mobilization effort was ostensibly to provide moral, social, and technological assistance to rural women on growing and selling produce, housework, childcare, and crafts; Fascism's aim was nation-building rather than agricultural improvement. Its real goal was to help peasant women (viewed as key to the ruralization movement) appreciate and accept rural life under Fascism. Ultimately the ruralization campaign had little impact on stopping the urban shift and collapsed by 1943. The propaganda campaigns of the movement, however, played a role in shaping later political involvement by rural women.

Wilson, G. and K. Wood (2004). "The influence of children on parental purchases during supermarket shopping." International Journal of Consumer Studies 28(4): 329-336.
	
Wilson, G. and K. Wood (2004). "The influence of children on parental purchases during supermarket shopping." International Journal of Consumer Studies 28(4): 329-336.
	
Wilson, M. (2004). "Masculinity, femininity and meat consumption, or 'Don't Have a Cow, Man!'" AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 56(S): 99.
	
Winship, J. (1980). Advertising in women's magazines, 1956-74. Birmingham (Birmingham B15 2TT), Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies, University of Birmingham.
	
Winship, J. (1981). Woman becomes an 'individual' : femininity and consumption in women's magazines 1954-69. Birmingham (University of Birmingham, P.O. Box 363, Birmingham), Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies.
	
Winship, J. (1987). Inside women's magazines. London, Pandora.
	
Winship, J. (1990). Women's magazines. Milton Keynes, Open University.
	
Winslow, S. (2005). "Work-Family Conflict, Gender, and Parenthood, 1977-1997."
	Although many observers assume that balancing the often-competing demands of work & family has become increasingly difficult in recent decades, little research has explicitly examined this proposition. This study examines this question by drawing on data from the 1977 Quality of Employment Survey & the 1997 National Study of the Changing Workforce. The author found that work-family conflict has increased during this period, particularly for men. In addition, marital, parental, & spouse's employment status prove to be consistently important predictors of work-family conflict. Future research focusing on men's experiences of conflict, examining conflict from the perspective of the family unit, & exploring the effects of workplace policies is suggested. 4 Tables, 3 Appendixes, 57 References. [Reprinted by permission of Sage Publications Inc., copyright 2005.].

Wiryo, H. and M. Hakimi (2005). "Implementation of health education, based on ethnographic study, to increase the colostrum and decrease early solid food feeding." Health Education & Behavior 32(1): 102-112.
	
Wittgrove, A. C., L. Jester, et al. (1998). "Pregnancy following gastric bypass for morbid obesity."  8(4): 461-464.
	Background: Women who suffer from morbid obesity are often infertile. If these women are able to become pregnant, they are considered high risk because of the hypertension, diabetes and other associated risk factors. Following the pregnancy is difficult due to limitations of the physical examinations. More costly ultrasound examinations are needed at a higher frequency. Bariatric surgery reduces the woman's weight and the incidence of obesity related co-morbidities. The number of pregnancies and rate of complications during those pregnancies in our post-bariatirc surgical patients were evaluated. Method: Our group has been doing bariatric surgery since the early 1980s. We have over 2000 active patients on our current newsletter mailing list. The patients also have a series of networks through support groups. The patients are informed to contact us when they become pregnant so we may assist the obstetrician with their care. Through these various means, we have been able to identify 41 women in our patient population who have became pregnant. Using personal interview, questionnaire, and review of perinatal records, pregnancy-related risks and complications were studied. Results: With over a 95% follow-up rate on the patients identified as having been pregnant following surgery, we found less risk of gestational diabetes, macrosomia, and cesarean section than associated with obesity. There were no patients with clinically significant anemia. Conclusion: Since the patients had an operation that restricts their food intake, some basic precautions should be taken when they become pregnant. With this in mind, our patients have done well with their pregnancies. The post-surgical group had fewer pregnancy-related complications than did an internally controlled group that were morbidly obese during their previous pregnancies. (C) 1998 Lippincott-Raven Publishers.

Witz, A. M., BL (2003). "The quality of manhood: masculinity and embodiment in the sociological tradition." SOCIOLOGICAL REVIEW 51(3): 339-356.
	This paper argues for the need to revisit classical sociological texts with a view to excavating the masculinity that inheres in these texts and saturates the concept of the social. Primarily through an examination of Durkheim and Simmel, it explores the strategies whereby masculine individuals could be released from corporeality and granted the sort of embodiment that allowed them to transcend their particularity and become social agents. It is argued that male embodiment is deeply sedimented in the sociological imaginary as the very condition of social action and the constituent of social agency. Thinking through the conceptual lenses of corporeality, embodiment and agency exposes some of the ways in which the analytical scaffolding of 'the social' rests on a deeply gendered ontological foundation. While the sociological tradition may indeed have continued salience for contemporary sociologies of the body, a relatively unreflexive recuperation of these texts is problematic. This paper challenges those who seek to rehabilitate the classics in the service of an embodied sociology to produce a much fuller accounting of the truncated corporeal terrain upon which classical sociology developed, and one which explicitly recognizes its gender.

Wolke, D. (2000). "Feeding problems of infants and toddlers."  10(2): 76-87.
	Background: Eating is a primary biological need. Feeding is of great importance for the development and consolidation of the social relationship between infant and the primary caretaker. A minority of children and their parents, however, have distressing experiences around feeding and eating that can lead to long-term problems in the parent-child relationship and the child's health. Objective: To provide a review of the prevalence, etiological factors and consequences of feeding problems, and to describe a behavioral approach to the treatment of feeding problems. Method: Literature review. Results: Major feeding problems in infancy are refusal to eat any food or solid food, very selective eating, lack of appetite and failure to thrive with feeding problems. The prevalence of severe feeding problems has been estimated to be around 6-10%, and of failure to thrive to be between 3 and 4% in the general infant population. Feeding problems often lead to impaired growth and as a consequence have been found to affect the cognitive, behavioral and social development of children. Disturbances of mother-infant interaction, both as an etiological factor and as a secondary problem, are often found. A developmental task-orientated biological-behavioral model of the etiology of feeding problems is introduced and an approach to treating food refusal and failure to thrive is described. Behavior modification techniques, modified for the treatment of feeding problems, are introduced. A multi-disciplinary behavioral treatment approach to feeding problems has been reported in case series to be highly successful for treating feeding problems. Conclusions: Feeding problems are frequent and, if untreated, can have adverse consequences on the child's development. There is evidence for the effectiveness of a multi-disciplinary behaviorally and developmentally orientated treatment approach in small case series. However, sufficiently large randomized controlled trials of the effectiveness of behavioral treatment approaches in clinical practice are lacking.

Wood, B. L. (2002). "Attachment and family systems - Introduction." Family Process 41(3): 284-284.
	
Woodward, K. (1994). Discourses of motherhood in women's magazines in contemporary Britain, Sheffield Hallam University.
	
Woolcock, M. (1998). "Social capital and economic development: Towards a theoretical perspective and policy framework,." Theory Society 27 27: 151-208.
	
Worobey, J. (1992). "Development Milestones Related to Feeding Status - Evidence from the Child Health Supplement to the 1981 National-Health Interview Survey."  5(6): 363-369.
	This study examines maternal reports of the health and attainment of developmental milestones for 1374 breast-fed v. 1414 formula-fed infants. Data were drawn from the 1981 Child Health Supplement to the National Health Interview Survey (NHIS-CHS), a nationally representative sample of some 40000 households in the United States of America. The results showed smiling to be reported earlier for the infants of breast-feeding mothers. Formula-feeding mothers were quicker to introduce their infants to solid foods, and also reported earlier success in toilet-training their infants than did breast-feeding mothers. Ratings of physical health were comparatively better for the breast-fed than for the bottle-fed infants. Although partially accounted for by duration of breast-feeding, demographic factors of low family income and maternal education predicted poorer infant health. These findings suggest that feeding method may modestly influence infant social development and physical well being.

Wright, A., S. Rice, et al. (1996). "Changing hospital practices to increase the duration of breastfeeding."  97(5): 669-675.
	Objective. To change the breastfeeding policy in a university teaching hospital in accord with the Ten Steps to Successful Breastfeeding of the United Nations Children's Fund and World Health Organization and to assess the impact of hospital practices on the duration of breastfeeding. Methods. One hundred ninety-two and 392 postpartum women in a maternity ward were interviewed in 1990 and 1993, respectively, regarding how they were feeding their infants and feeding practices in the hospital. Between these two periods, the hospital infant-feeding policy was reviewed and revised in accord with the Ten Steps. Two hundred seventy of the mothers interviewed in 1993 were interviewed again when their infants were 4 months old regarding the duration of full and partial breastfeeding. Results. By 1993, more newborns were put to the breast in the first hour of life (63.2% vs 24.8%); fewer breastfed infants were fed foods other than breast milk (27.9% vs 46.7%); and more mothers received breastfeeding guidance from hospital staff (81.9% vs 61.3%). The duration of breastfeeding in 1993 was longer for women who did not receive formula in the hospital, who were not given discharge packs containing formula and/or coupons, and who roomed-in more than 60% of the time. These associations persisted after controlling for confounding. Conclusion. Infant-feeding policies and practices are amenable to change, and policies such as the Baby-Friendly Hospital Initiative may contribute to an increase in the duration of breastfeeding.

Wrigley, N. (1998). How British retailers have shaped food choice. The Nation's Diet. The Social Science of Food Choice. A. Murcott. Essex, Pearson Education: 112-128.
	
Yang, F.-C. I. (2004). "International Women's Magazines and the Production of Sexuality in Taiwan." Journal of Popular Culture 37(3): 505-530.
	Discusses how women's magazines in Taiwan promote a version of feminism that perpetuates global capitalism. The author begins by explaining the rise in such periodicals as situated within Taiwan's political and economic globalization. The article then describes how the magazines, supported by international advertising agencies, use an "international" language of sexual pleasure to construct feminine empowerment as consumption.

Yeo, E. A., L. Bequet, et al. (2005). "Attitudes towards exclusive breastfeeding and other infant feeding options - A study from Abidjan, Cote d'Ivoire."  51(4): 223-226.
	The HIV/AIDS-pandemic causes many problems for the most affected societies and their health care systems. One of these is the 'parent to child transmission' (PTCT) through breastmilk and its prevention (PPTCT). As economic and hygienic conditions do not always assure safe replacement feeding in developing countries, a WHO/UNAIDS/UNICEF-expert panel proposed methods to reduce the risk of PTCT but to use breastmilk for infant feeding. The study presented here aimed at identifying the expected acceptance of such a concept by addressing the attitudes of women in Abidjan, Ivory Coast. Interviews were performed with 150 mothers and 60 pregnant women. The vast majority regarded breastfeeding as the appropriate method of infant feeding, although the idea of exclusive breastfeeding was not well accepted. Water, especially, was felt to be a necessary supplement. In case of a suggested HIV-infection of the mother, 74 per cent of the women voted for weaning after 3 months. Eighty-three per cent accepted the exclusive use of breastmilk substitutes from birth. Seventy-six per cent were ready to boil their milk for pasteurization. Only 37 per cent considered a wet-nurse to breastfeed their child. As mixed breastfeeding implies a highest risk of PTCT of HIV, the most favoured option-exclusive breastfeeding and early weaning-requires some effort to convince women that breastmilk is a sufficient source of nutrients, fluid and energy for their child and that this feeding should preferably be practised up to 6 months of age. For affluent women, breastmilk substitutes can also be considered as a means of PPTCT in overall resource-poor countries. For the majority of women, there is no real alternative to breastfeeding and to the use of breastmilk for which appropriate technologies of PPTCT are to be developed with respect to national, local and household specifications.

Yip, K.-s. (2000). "The community care movement in mental health services: Implications for social work practice." International Social Work 43(1): 33-48.
	This article is a critical review about the community care movement in mental health services in the UK and the USA. This movement has important implications for psychiatric social work practice. First, social workers have to enrich the concept of community care with those of normalization and social integration. Second, they have to develop an accepting community for mental patients and outpatients. Finally, they are the most suitable people to integrate formal and informal community care.

Young, I., F. A. de Boer, et al. (2005). "Healthy Eating at School: a European forum." Nutrition Bulletin 30(1): 85-93.
	
Young-Hyman, D., L. J. Herman, et al. (2000). "Care giver perception of children's obesity-related health risk: a study of African American families." Obesity Research 8: 241-248.
	
Yovsi, R. D. and H. Keller (2003). "Breastfeeding: An adaptive process."  31(2): 147-171.
	Breastfeeding is not only a natural way of feeding children but also a parenting system that is practiced differently in diverse cultures depending on the ecological conditions and cultural values. In this study, videotapes of breastfeeding sessions and interviews with breastfeeding mothers of two ethnic groups of rural Cameroon, sedentary Nso farmers (n = 33) and nomadic Fulani pastorals (n = 18), were analyzed. The primary socialization goal of the two groups is the health and survival of the child in a hazardous. environment. Yet their ideas about self-construct differ, with the Nso following a more interdependent developmental pathway and the Fulani following a more individualistic pathway. The results are discussed with respect to their relevance in defining a culturally informed developmental science, as well as developing intervention programs that are tailored to the needs of people in varying contexts.

Zeldis, J. B., B. A. Williams, et al. (1999). "STEPS (TM): A comprehensive program for controlling and monitoring access to thalidomide."  21(2): 319-330.
	In July 1998, the US Food and Drug Administration approved the marketing of thalidomide for the treatment of cutaneous manifestations of erythema nodosum leprosum. To ensure that fetal exposure to this teratogenic agent does not occur, the manufacturer has instituted a comprehensive program to control prescribing, dispensing, and use of the drug. This program, known as the System for Thalidomide Education and Prescribing Safety (S.T.E.P.S.(TM) [Celgene Corporation, Warren, New Jersey]), is based in part on experience gained with other drugs-specifically isotretinoin and clozapine-that offer important clinical benefits but carry the potential for serious harm. To achieve its goal of the lowest possible incidence of drug-associated teratogenicity, the S.T.E.P.S.(TM) program uses a three-pronged approach: (1) controlling access to the drug; (2) educating prescribers, pharmacists, and patients; and (3) monitoring compliance. Clinicians who wish to prescribe thalidomide must be registered in the S.T.E.P.S.(TM) Prescriber Registry and agree to prescribe the drug in accordance with S.T.E.P.S.(TM) patient eligibility criteria and monitoring procedures. Pharmacies must also register and agree to comply with patient identification and monitoring criteria. Finally, patients receive visual aids, including a videotape, written material, and verbal counseling about the benefits and risks of thalidomide therapy, the importance of not becoming pregnant during therapy, and the types of contraception required (including emergency contraception) and their availability. Women of childbearing potential must agree to undergo pregnancy testing before starting therapy and on a regular schedule during therapy. All patients must agree to complete a confidential survey about their compliance with contraception, testing, and drug therapy. The manufacturer is monitoring survey results and outcome data and is prepared to make whatever modifications to the S.T.E.P.S.(TM) program are necessary to ensure its effectiveness. In addition to minimizing the potential risk for fetal harm associated with thalidomide therapy, the S.T.E.P.S.(TM) program may provide a model for future cases in which a drug offers compelling benefits but poses profound risks unless its distribution is carefully controlled.

Zeller, M. and S. Daniels (2004). "The obesity epidemic: family matters." Journal of Pediatrics. 145(1): 3-4.
	
Zhang, Q. and Y. Wang (2004). "Socioeconomic inequality of obesity in the United States: do gender, age and ethnicity matter?" Social Science and Medicine 58: 1171-1180.
	
Ziegler, P., C. Hanson, et al. (2006). "Feeding Infants and Toddlers Study: Meal and snack intakes of hispanic and non-hispanic infants and toddlers."  106(1): S107-S123.
	Objective To describe meal and snack patterns of Hispanic and non-Hispanic infants and toddlers. Design A cross-sectional telephone survey in which mothers or other primary caregivers reported their infants' and toddlers' food and beverage intake for a 24-hour period. Subjects/setting Subjects were a subset of the national random sample of children aged 4-24 months who participated in the 2002 Feeding Infants and Toddlers Study. The Feeding Infants and Toddlers Study includes a stratified random sample of 3,022 infants and toddlers aged 4-24 months. Three hundred seventy-one Hispanic and 2,637 non-Hispanic children who had 24-hour dietary recalls are included in the subset. Analyses Means +/- standard errors of daily intakes of energy, nutrients, and nutrient densities were calculated, as were percentages of children consuming foods at each eating occasion. Results Hispanic and non-Hispanic infants and toddlers, on average, were fed seven times per day. Overall, the percentages of children who ate snacks increased with age, and more than 80% of toddlers aged 12-24 months consumed afternoon snacks, with more than 90% of Hispanic children consuming an afternoon snack. In each age group, there were significant differences between ethnic groups in nutrient intakes by eating occasion. No significant difference was seen for energy across all meal occasions. At age 6-11 months, Hispanic children had a significantly lower intake of carbohydrate at dinner and lower intake of saturated fat at afternoon snacks compared with non-Hispanic children (P <.05). The main difference between Hispanic children's and non-Hispanic children's intakes by eating occasion is at age 12-24 months. Hispanics aged 12-24 months had significantly (P <.05) lower percentages of energy from fat and saturated fat and a significantly (P <.05) higher percentage of carbohydrate at lunch compared with non-Hispanic children. For dinner, Hispanic toddlers had significantly (P <.05) lower intakes of total fat and saturated fat compared with non-Hispanic toddlers at age 12-24 months. Overall fiber intake contributed 2 g/meal for both ethnic groups. Snacks contributed, on average, less than 1 g fiber, except Hispanic toddlers had significantly higher fiber intake at afternoon snacks (1.5 g) than non-Hispanic toddlers. Foods frequently consumed at meals and snacks were lacking in whole grains, vegetables, and fruits. Most nutrients were not significantly different between Hispanics and non-Hispanics for meals and snacks. Conclusions Considering the sizeable contribution that snacks make toward overall energy, parents and caregivers should plan toddlers' snacks to complement meals by including additional fruits, vegetables, and whole grains that are culturally appropriate rather than fruit drinks, cookies, and crackers. This will increase fiber intake and limit fat and sugar intakes. To develop healthful eating patterns, introduce toddlers to foods eight to 10 times to increase food acceptance and the likelihood of establishing healthful eating patterns. Dietetics professionals need to consider cultural differences when developing meal and snack patterns for Hispanic and non-Hispanic infants and toddlers.

Ziersch, M. A., Baum, F. E., MacDougall, C. And Putland, C. ( 2005). "Neighbourhood life and social capital: the implications for health." Social Science & Medicine 50: 71-86.
	
Zipper, E., G. Vila, et al. (2001). "Childhood and adolescent obesity, mental disorders and familial psychopathology."  30(30): 1489-1495.
	Objective The purpose of this study was to evaluate the type and frequency of psychopathological disorders observed in obese children and adolescents. We also looked for a correlation between psychic disorders in the obese children, the degree of obesity and paternal psychopathology. Patients and methods The study group included 84 obese children and adolescents aged 5 to 16 to years (mean age 10.9 +/- 2.8 years). There were 55 girls and 29 boys. The z-score expressing deviation from the ideal body mass index (IMC) varied from +2 to +10.6 (mean +5.4 + 1.9). Psychopathological disorders observed in these obese patents were compared in children and adolescents with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. The standard diagnostic interview (K-SADS PL) and self-administered questionnaires (Sielberger STAIC-Trait for anxiety and CDI for depression in children or CBCL or GHQ for their parents) were also used to evaluate psychic disorders. Results More than half of the obese children (47 out of 84) had a DSM-IV diagnosis, often involving anxiety (n = 28). The rate of internalized and externalized psychopathological disorders (measured by STAIC-Trait and CBCL) was higher in the obese children than in the diabetics, The children's psychopathological disorders were more marked if their parents were perturbed, particularly when their mother had an internalised disorder. No correlation was found between the degree obesity and psychopathological disorders in the obese children and adolescents. Conclusion Our findings show the frequency of mental disorders in obese children and point out the importance of parental psychopathology. This underlines the usefulness of a pedopsychiatric approach implicating the entire family for therapeutic management of these patients. (C) 2001, Masson, Paris

Zittel-Palamara, K. M. "Psychosocial Contributors to Runaway and Homeless Adolescent Nutrition: A Social Work Perspective."
	This is an exploratory study of 91 runaway/homeless youths' nutritional intake. Specifically, this study examines the influences of these youth's psychosocial characteristics on nutritional intake. Findings show that these youth's diets are high in fat/sugar, tend to be fried, and easy to access/consume while on the run. Homeless and throwaway youth were found to have the worst nutritional intake patterns of all the youth in the sample. Youth between ages twelve and fifteen consumed more sucrose daily, but had better vitamin, calcium and iron consumption than did youth between ages sixteen and eighteen. Youth whose parents received public assistance, disability insurance and social security had better iron and calcium intake than youth whose parents had salaried income. Youth that experienced more psychological issues consumed the least calories daily and consumed the least calories from sucrose daily. Experiencing physical abuse by one's mother, part of a three variable model, was found to predict higher levels, of sucrose intake daily. Also, experiencing neglect by one's father, part of a four variable model, was found to predict more caloric intake daily. Youth shelter-based social workers and health care-based social workers need to assess these youth's food choices and access to food while living on the streets and intervene as part of multidisciplinary teams. In that way, they may be instrumental in the development of community networks that provide food and assistance to runaway and homeless youth while on the run.

Zook, M. (2004). "The three-piece suit and modern masculinity: England, 1550-1850." JOURNAL OF INTERDISCIPLINARY HISTORY 34(3): 450-451.
	
Zuckerman, M. E. (1991). Sources on the history of women's magazines, 1792-1960 : an annotated bibliography. New York, Greenwood Press.
	
Zuckerman, M. E. W. A History of Popular Women's Magazines in the United States, 1792-1995 (Contributions in Women's Studies)