Academic Language

It goes without saying that academic writing uses a more formal register than everyday communication. The following are four important conventions to follow that will help you to hit the right level of formality in your writing:

1. Use 'Latinate' verb forms and avoid casual language

Academic writing tends to adopt formal language derived from Latin, rather than Anglo-Saxon roots. This distinction is particularly evident in the use of verbs in academic language. In general, phrasal verbs are used when speaking (e.g. in presentations), whilst Latinate verbs are used in academic writing (e.g. essays). Phrasal language is more informal, whilst Latinate verbs sound ‘posher’ and more academic.

Phrasal verbs tend to come in two parts: they use a verb together with an adverb or preposition. There is often a one-word equivalent, which usually comes from Latin root, reflecting the origins of formal English among educated Romans and the Church.

Examples include: 

• carry out = perform
• talk about = discuss
• look up to = respect

Why is this useful? Latinate verbs use fewer words, so can help you develop a more concise writing style. Latinate verbs can also be more specific than their phrasal equivalents, for example, the phrasal verb 'set up' has several Latinate equivalents: 

• A room:   I’m going to arrange the room for the meeting
• An experiment:  The experiment was prepared
• An organisation:  The NSPCC was established in 1884

It is okay to use a mixture of phrasal and Latinate verbs in your writing, and to tailor it to your assignment. For example, if writing a more informal blog post, you may want to use more phrasal language. Some common academic examples are:

It is okay to use a mixture of phrasal and Latinate verbs in your writing, and to tailor it to your assignment. For example, if writing a more informal blog post, you may want to use more phrasal language. But awareness of how and when to use different registers of language can help to improve the level of formality of your writing. 

2. Avoid contractions and abbreviations

Academic writing tends to avoid the types of contractions and abbreviated language that you might use in other forms of communication. In some cases, this is obvious, but in other cases, where abbreviations have become commonly used forms of words (e.g. quote/quotation, bike/bicycle, flu/influenza) it can be more difficult to spot. For example:

However, some commonly used abbreviations or acronyms relating to the discipline will often need to be used to enhance the clarity of your writing and reduce the wordcount. In these cases, it is important to use the full form of the abbreviated name or phrase in the first instance, including the abbreviation in parentheses. For example:

• A key role has always been played by the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO)...
• World Health Organisation (WHO) recommendations state...
• The use of an Electrocardiogram (ECG) is recommended...
• The addition of trichloroacetic acid (TCA) will result in...

Please note: certain extremely commonly used acronyms have become part of common usage and do not require further explanation within a text. For example: AIDS, laser, radar, scuba. 

3. Use neutral and objective language

Academic writing tends to strive for an appearance of objectivity. Although you will no doubt have an informed opinion or theory that you are trying to get across in your writing, it is important to build a compelling objective case for your ideas using evidence and data. It is not uncommon to use the first person (I) in academic writing, but only as a further development of your objective analysis and interpretation to indicate where your original contribution takes over.  

• Avoid overusing the first person (I) and use passive forms where possible: 'the experiment was conducted...'; 'evidence suggests...'; 'a sample was taken...'
• Watch out for adjectives that imply a value judgement: fantastic, brilliant, rubbish, interesting, good, etc.
• Avoid using cliched phrases: 'a hot topic...'; 'the other side of the coin...'; 'at the end of the day...'; 'the fact of the matter...'; 'in the current climate...'
• Avoid overstatement. Make cautious use or avoid the following altogether: extremely, very, really, always, never, a lot, the most, the least

Always check department guidelines on the use of first person (I) forms in your writing. Some scientific writing may require no first person forms to be used, while some reflective assignments may require the use of the first person to present personal experience. 

4. Use Evidence

Academic writing draws on evidence and sources to present a balanced view of All facts and theories should be referenced using a standard system:

• Harvard, MHRA, APA, Chicago, etc.
• Author-date or footnotes
• Include a bibliography of EVERYTHING that has informed your writing
  Check your department policy on preferred method
• Visit the Library Referencing pages for more information, examples and tutorials
• Always check department guidelines!

Paragraphs and Flow

Paragraphs are the building blocks of your written work, and a good essay or assignment will organise the content clearly at a paragraph level. However, in a piece of academic writing paragraphs can be tricky to structure due to the complexity of ideas that you are likely to be working with.

The following structure is not the only way to write a paragraph, but it is a common model that is used in academic writing to build sources and evidence into your writing in a critical and analytical way. 

Writing good paragraphs: structure

Most paragraphs of academic writing tend to follow a similar organisational structure:

1. The Topic Sentence: States the main idea or area to be covered by the paragraph
2. Explanation or definitions (optional): Can be used to clarify any difficult or uncertain terminology introduced in the topic sentence
3. Evidence and/or examples: One or more sentences introducing key ideas, sources, quotes, case studies, evidence or data
4. Comment: Explores what the evidence means, how it can be summarised or whether it needs to be challenged
5. Concluding sentence: Relates the paragraph to your overall argument and/or links forward to the next paragraph

The final sentence is often the most important part of a paragraph as it clarifies your interpretation of the topic area and identifies how it contributes to your overall argument. Watch this short Study Skills Hacks video for more information. 

Writing good paragraphs: unity

A paragraph will usually discuss only one idea as outlined in the first sentence, the topic sentence. If you find a paragraph drifting away from this controlling idea, it is time to split it into more than one paragraph.

• The opening sentence of paragraph should outline the main idea (topic sentence)
• Every supporting sentence should directly explain, refer back to, or build on the main idea using specific evidence and examples where possible
• Use the final sentence(s) to refer back to the topic sentence and/or lead into the following paragraph.

Writing good paragraphs: flow 

The skill of structuring your writing and building effective connections between paragraphs is one that will allow you to develop and sustain a compelling argument in your written work. By setting out your ideas and evidence with a natural flow, you will make your work much more readable. This important technique will help you work towards higher levels of attainment in assignments and help to improve the quality of your everyday writing.

Paraphrasing

When you are producing a piece of writing at university, you will often want to talk about what someone else has written about the topic. There are four distinct ways of doing this.

• Quoting: directly including in your work the published words or other data you have found in a source
• Paraphrasing: expressing in your own words the ideas, arguments, words or other material you have found published elsewhere
• Para-quoting: paraphrasing an idea or area but retaining one or more important words and phrases from the original in quotation marks
• Summarising: providing a top-level overview of a single larger area of work or multiple sources

There are many reasons for quoting or paraphrasing in your own work, but essentially these techniques allow you to show your understanding of current knowledge about the topic you are studying, and respond to that knowledge in your work. Remember that you will need to cite and reference all of the sources that have informed your work.

It is a complex linguistic skill to incorporate others’ work smoothly and efficiently into your own by quoting or paraphrasing. Skilful use of sources and selective quoting and paraphrasing are important elements of the critical writing process, which is in greater detail on the critical thinking pages - see Legitimation Code Theory for more ideas.

It is also a key skill of academic writing that will help to ensure that your work does not include elements of plagiarism. For more information on plagiarism, including suggestions on how to avoid it, see the following resource from the Department of Physics and Astronomy. As with other aspects of working with sources, it is important to follow your department’s specific guidelines about these skills.

When to Quote and When to Paraphrase

Writing to a Word Count

If you find you often go over the word count on an assignment, there are several possible causes and solutions. In this online resource we will think about the purpose of the word count, reasons why we might go over, and strategies to tackle it.

Why is there a word count?

Word counts are part of the challenge of academic writing for several reasons:

• To suggest a level of detail: with one topic, you could write a 100 word summary, 1,000 word essay, 10,000 word dissertation, or a 100,000 word PhD thesis! The word count gives an indication of the level of depth you are expected to go into
• To ensure fairness: each student has the same number of words to show the marker what they know. 
• To test your communication Skills: being able to keep within a word count requires a concise writing style and excellent communication skills – it helps you get straight to the point!
• To demonstrate your critical thinking skills: to stay within word counts, you need to focus on what is most important, and select the best examples and case studies. It puts critical thinking into practice
• As a matter of practicality: markers only have a finite amount of time to mark work!

Why Do We Go Over the Word Count?

First of all, it is important to remember that being over the word count is better than having a blank page! The ideas are down on the page, but might need refining. There are several reasons why you might have exceeded the word count: 

• Still developing an effective structure: Do you have a clear plan and have you stuck to it? If not, can you map out an overall structure for your essay and identify areas where you have departed from it
• Fear of missing out something important: try to be selective with examples/arguments. What is your 'mission statement' or key argument, and how does each section help you make it?
• Waffling (using 200 words when 100 will do): work on developing a concise academic writing style. Even if you’re not over the word count, this leaves you more words for your critical analysis and discussion

The following are some simple tips to make sure you stay within your word count:

Strategies to Meet Your Word Limit

1. Structure

How are you structuring your argument? Does it need developing in order to highlight the key argument?

• Plan what your key points are, and what percentage of your word count to spend on each. Are any sections disproportionately long?
• Avoid repeating arguments – try reading your work backwards (paragraph by paragraph, not word by word!). This can make it easier to spot ideas that are repeated, as you are viewing each paragraph individually rather than your argument as a whole
• Use topic sentences at the start of each paragraph. This can help you (and the marker) to identify what key point you are trying to make. Are there any paragraphs that are making the same point? Can you link them?

2. Being selective

Are you using more examples/case studies than necessary? Are you worried about missing out something important? Try the following:

• Mission Statement (Thesis Statement): Use this to identify what your key argument will be, and how to structure it. What are your most important points, and what can you perhaps cut?
• Selecting evidence: It might be tempting to show all of the reading you have done, but select the most important case studies, and explain why you have chosen them – this can be evidence of critical thinking. (e.g. whilst many studies have examined X, a key paper is Y because…) For more info, see the Manchester University Academic Phrasebank
• Use the WEED model: This can help organise the reading you have done. What key pieces of evidence and what key examples from your reading best prove your point? You don’t need to show all of the reading that you’ve done, you need to use the best evidence and examples to make your argument

3. Academic Language/Style

Are you using 200 words where 100 will do? One way of testing this is to calculate your Fog Index to find out how clear and concise you are being. Some ways to keep your word count down include: 

• Use Latinate verbs (find out vs. investigate) (resource for this?)
• Replace nouns with verbs (carry out an analysis of vs. analyse)
• Avoid excessive hedging language (it may be possible that X could be responsible for Y as it may be the case that…)

Remember: Having a more concise academic writing style gives you more words to use on things that are important, e.g. critical analysis and discussion. It’s not just about cutting the odd word here and there to get you under the word count.